Flexible AC Transmission

System

PROF. P. V. GAIKWAD
Syllabus Structure
FACT Syllabus
Syllabus
 Unit I

TRANSMISSION INTERCONNECTION
 Why We Need Transmission Interconnections?

Delivery of Electrical Power.

To minimize the total power generation capacity and
Fuel cost.
To supply electricity to the loads at minimum cost
with a required reliability.
Transmission is an alternative to a new generation
resource.
Economic energy or reserve sharing is constrained
by transmission capacity.
 Why We Need Transmission Interconnections?

Can we use the full potential of Transmission

interconnections?
As power transfers grow, the system becomes more
complex to operate.
The power systems of today are mechanically
controlled.
If so what?
Switching devices are mechanical and there is little
high speed.
Mechanical devices cannot be initiated frequently.
 Why We Need Transmission Interconnections?

Mechanical devices wear out quickly.

In view point of both dynamic and steady state
operation, the system is really uncontrolled.
In recent years, power demand increases day by day.
Increased demand and absence of long term
planning leads to less security and reduced quality of
supply.
 Opportunities for FACTS

FACTS technology opens up opportunities to control power and

enhance the usage capability of line.
FACTS controller:
 Control the current through the line at reasonable cost.
 Enables the power to flow under normal and contingency
conditions.
 To control the interrelated parameters (series impedance,
shunt impedance, current, voltage, phase angle)
 To damp oscillations at various frequencies below rated
frequency.
 Enable a line to carry power closer to its thermal rating.
 Mechanical switching replaced with power electronics
 Power Flow in an AC System

In ac system, the electrical generation and load must

balance at all times.
The electrical system is self-regulating.
If generation is less than load, voltage and frequency
drop.
Active power flows from surplus generation areas to
deficit areas.
 Power Flow in Parallel Paths

Example 1: Two parallel transmission lines without

control.

………………………….. = 2/3 P , P2 = /3 P
 Power Flow in Parallel Paths

Example 2: One line uncontrolled and one is

controlled using HVDC converters
 Power Flow in Parallel Pat

Example 3: Using FACT devices

 Power Flow in Parallel Paths

Example 4: Power flow control with variable phase

angle
If phase angle increases magnitude of power also
increases
 Power Flow in Meshed System

Line BC is overloaded ( Loaded at 1600 MW for its continuous rating of 1250 MW

Power Flow in Meshed System
Power Flow in Meshed System
Power Flow in Meshed System
 WHAT LIMITS THE LOADING CAPABILITY?

Line loading is the process of adding load to power

transmission lines by installing the necessary
equipment, such as the loading coils, in series.
Load ability of line is defined as the extent of load
which can flow through the line without exceeding
the limitations.
The best use of transmission line & maximize
loading capability some limitations.
 Limits of Loading Capability

 Thermal capability of an overhead line is a function of the ambient temperature,

wind conditions, condition of the conductor, and ground clearance.
The  Thermal limit exceeds due to heat generated by line current, sags and line contact
rma with trees.
l

 From an insulation point of view, many lines are designed very conservatively.
Diel  For a given nominal voltage rating, it is often possible to increase normal operation
by +10Vo voltage (i.e., 500 kV-550 kV) or even higher.
ectr
ic

There are a number of stability issues that limit the transmission capability. These
Sta include:
1. Transient stability 3. Steady-state stability 5. Voltage collapse
bilit 2. Dynamic stability 4. Frequency collapse 6. Subsynchronous resonance
y
POWER FLOW AND DVNAMIC STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS
OF A TRANSMISSION INTERCONNECTION

 Figure (a) shows a simplified case of power flow on a transmission line.

 Locations 1 and 2 could be any transmission substations connected by a transmission line.
 As shown in the phasor diagram [Figure (b)] the driving voltage drop in the line is the
phasor difference between the two line voltage phasors, E1 and E2. The line current
magnitude is given by:

 The current flow phasor is perpendicular to the driving voltage (90'phase lag). If the angle
between the two bus voltages is small, the current flow largely represents the active power.
 Increasing or decreasing the inductive impedance of a line will greatly affect the active
power flow.
 Thus impedance control, which in reality provides current control, can be the most cost-
effective means of controlling the power flow.
Power angle curve for different values of “X”
Active and reactive power flow phasor diagram
Relationship between the active and reactive currents with
reference to the voltages at the two ends.
 Relative Importance of Controllable Parameters

 Control of the line impedance X (e.g.,with a thyristor-controlled series capacitor) can provide a powerful
means of current control.
 When the angle is not large, which is often the case, control of X or the angle substantially provides the
control of active power.
 Control of angle (with a Phase Angle Regulator, for example), which in turn controls the driving voltage,
provides a powerful means of controlling the current flow and hence active power flow when the angle is
not large.
 Injecting a voltage in series with the line, and perpendicular to the current flow, can increase or decrease
the magnitude of current flow. Since the current flow lags the driving voltage by 90 degrees, this means
injection of reactive power in series, (e.g., with static synchronous series compensation) can provide i
powerful means of controlling the line current, and hence the active power when the angle is not large.
 Injecting voltage in series with the line and with any phase angle with respect to the driving voltage can
control the magnitude and the phase of the line current. This means that injecting a voltage phasor with
variable phase angle can provide a powerful means of precisely controlling the active and reactive po*Lt
flow. This requires injection of both active and reactive power in series.
 Because the per unit line impedance is usually a small fraction of the line voltage, the MVA rating of a
series Controller will often be a small fraction of the throughput line MVA.
 When the angle is not large, controlling the magnitude of one or the other line voltages (e.g., with a
thyristor-controlled voltage regulator) can be a very cost-effective means for the control of reactive power
flow through the interconnection.
 What is FACT?

FACTS stands for Flexible AC Transmission

System.
It is a power electronics-based system where static
devices are used to enhance and increase the power
transfer capability and controllability.
These devices are used in a power system network to
increase the power transfer capability of
transmission lines and will increase the voltage
stability, transient stability, voltage regulation,
reliability, and thermal limits of the transmission
network.
 Types of FACTS Controller

1. Series Controller
2. Shunt Controller
3. Combined Series-Series Controller
4. Combined Series-Shunt Controller
 Series Controller

The series controller is used to introduce or inject

voltage in series with the line voltage.
It consists of a capacitor or reactor.
This type of controller is used to supply or consume
variable reactive power.
When the load on the transmission line is higher, it
needs extra reactive power. In this condition, it is used
to supply reactive power with the help of a capacitor.
Example:- Thyristor controlled series capacitor
(TCSC), Static synchronous series capacitor (SSSC)
etc.
 Shunt Controller

This type of device is used to inject current into the

power system at the end of connection.
Similar to the series controller, it also consists of
variable impedance like capacitor & inductor.
When a capacitor is used to connect in parallel with
the power system, the method is known as shunt
capacitive compensation.
Example:- STATCOM, Static VAR compensator
(SVC), Static synchronous compensator (SSC) etc.
 Combined Series-Series Controller

In this controller, combined the series-series

controller with the line.
It can transfer real power with lines a via DC power
link.
It can be connected to unified controllers so that the
DC terminals of converters are interlinked.
Example:- Interlink power flow controller (IPFC)
 Combined Series-Shunt Controller

In this controller, combined the series-shunt

controller with the transmission line.
This type of controller is used to introduce voltage in
parallel using the shunt controller, and along with it,
to introduce current in series using the series
controller.
Example:- Unified power flow controller (UPFC)
 Converter Control Characteristics

 To control the power in two terminal DC link, it is desirable to have

current control in one converter and voltage control in 2nd converter.
 Increase of the power in the link can be achieved.
 Reducing α – improve the power factor
 Increasing β and γ – worsen the pf – higher loss in valve snubber
circuit.
P = Id × Vd
Control Methods:
• Constant current (CC)
• Constant Extinction Angle (CEA)
• Constant β (angle of advancement)
• Constant α min
 Constant Current Control Method

 Rectifier consists of SCR which has

current rating of several thousands
of ampere.
 Once the load current drawn on a
dc line reaches to rated value,
current can not be allowed to
increase.
 If current increase firing angle will
control the voltage and this will
control the current.
 Constant Extinction Angle Control (CEA)

For stable operation and minimum commutation

failure Extinction angle γ should be greater than turn
off angle
Converter Control Characteristics
 Converter Control Characteristics

 Point A – Mode of operation

Station I – Rectifier with CC control
Station II – Constant Extinction Angle
 There can be 3 modes of operation:
1. CC at rectifier and CEA at inverter (operating point A) – normal
mode of operation
2. With slight dip in the AC voltage, the point of intersection drifts to C
which implies minimum α at rectifier and minimum γ at the inverter.
3. With lower AC voltage at the rectifier, the mode of operation shifts to
point B which implies CC at the inverter with minimum α at the
rectifier.
 The characteristic “ab” has generally more negative slope than
characteristic “fe” because the slope of “ab” is due to the combined
resistance of (Rd + Rcr ) while is the slope of “fe” is due to Rci .
 Converter Control Characteristics

Control Characteristics for negative current margin “

 Figure shows the control characteristics for
negative current margin . (where the current
reference of station II is larger than that of station
I)
 The operating point shifts now to D which implies
power reversal with station I (now acting as
inverter) operating with minimum CEA control
while station II operating with CC control.
 This shows the importance of maintaining the
correct sign of the current margin to avoid
inadvertent power reversal.
 The maintenance of proper current margin
requires adequate telecommunication channel for
rapid transmission of the current or power order.
 What is Compensation?

Compensation in the context of power systems refers

to the use of devices or techniques to improve the
performance, stability, and efficiency of the system.
It involves the addition of reactive power (either
capacitive or inductive) to the system to counteract the
effects of inductive or capacitive loads, thereby
improving voltage stability, power factor, and overall
system efficiency.
There are two main types of compensation:
1. Series Compensation
2. Shunt Compensation
 Series Compensation

Series compensation is a technique used in power

systems to improve the efficiency and stability of the
system, particularly in high-voltage transmission
lines.
It involves the addition of series reactors or
capacitors in line with the transmission line to adjust
the line impedance and improve power transfer
capability.
 Series Compensation

Purpose:
Series compensation is primarily used to reduce the effective impedance of a transmission line, which helps
in improving the power transfer capability and voltage stability of the system.
Components:
Series compensation can be achieved using either series capacitors or reactors. Series capacitors are used to
reduce the line impedance, while series reactors can be used to increase the line impedance if needed.
Benefits:
Increases the power transfer capability of the transmission line by reducing line impedance.
Improves voltage stability by reducing voltage drops along the line.
Helps in damping out power oscillations and improving transient stability.
Applications:
Typically applied in long transmission lines to mitigate the voltage drop and improve power transfer
capability.
Used in conjunction with other control devices for optimal power flow and voltage regulation.
Challenges:
Requires careful design and coordination to avoid overcompensation, which can lead to stability issues.
May introduce additional complexity and cost to the transmission system.
Overall, series compensation plays a crucial role in enhancing the efficiency and stability of power
transmission systems, especially in networks with long transmission lines.
 Shunt Compensation

Shunt compensation is a technique used in power

systems to improve the power factor, voltage
stability, and overall efficiency of the system.
It involves the addition of shunt reactors or
capacitors across the transmission line or at specific
locations in the system to adjust the reactive power
flow.
 Shunt Compensation

Purpose:
Shunt compensation is used to control the flow of reactive power in the system. It helps in maintaining voltage levels,
improving power factor, and reducing system losses.
Components:
Shunt compensation can be achieved using either shunt capacitors or reactors. Shunt capacitors are used to generate or
absorb reactive power, while shunt reactors are used to consume reactive power.
Benefits:
Improves power factor by reducing the amount of reactive power supplied by the system.
Helps in voltage regulation by supplying or absorbing reactive power to maintain voltage levels within acceptable limits.
Reduces system losses by minimizing the flow of reactive power.
Applications:
Shunt capacitors are often used in industrial and commercial facilities to improve power factor and reduce electricity
costs.
Shunt reactors are used in systems with low system impedance to limit overvoltage conditions and improve system
stability.
Challenges:
Careful design and coordination are required to ensure that shunt compensation does not cause overvoltage or resonance
issues in the system.
Shunt compensation devices can be costly and require regular maintenance.
In summary, shunt compensation is an important technique in power systems for improving power factor, voltage
stability, and system efficiency. It is used in various applications to ensure the reliable and efficient operation of the
electrical grid.