Continuity

Objectives
► Understand and apply the definition of
continuity for a function at a point or
on an interval.
► Given a piecewise defined function,
decide where it is continuous or
discontinuous.
► State and understand the Intermediate
Value Theorem.
► Use the IVT to show that a function
takes a certain value, or that an
equation has a solution
Last time
Definition
We write
lim f(x) = L
x→a
and say

“the limit of f(x), as x approaches a, equals L”

if we can make the values of f(x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L

as we like) by taking x to be sufficiently close to a (on either side of
a) but not equal to a.
Basic Limits

Theorem (Basic Limits)

► lim x = a
x→a
► lim c = c
x→a
Limit Laws for arithmetic
Theorem (Limit Laws)
Let f and g be functions with limits at a point a. Then
► lim (f(x) + g(x)) = lim f(x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
► lim (f(x) − g(x)) = lim f(x) − lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
► lim (f(x) · g(x)) = lim f(x) · lim g(x)
x→a x→a
x→a
(x) limx→a f(x)
► lim f = if lim g(x) ̸ = 0
x→a g(x) limx→a g(x) x→a
Hatsumon
Here are some discussion questions to start.
True or False
At some point in your life you were exactly three feet tall.
Hatsumon
Here are some discussion questions to start.
True or False
At some point in your life you were exactly three feet tall.

True or False
At some point in your life your height (in inches) was equal to your
weight (in pounds).
Hatsumon
Here are some discussion questions to start.
True or False
At some point in your life you were exactly three feet tall.

True or False
At some point in your life your height (in inches) was equal to your
weight (in pounds).

True or False
Right now there are a pair of points on opposite sides of the world
measuring the exact same temperature.
Outline

Continuity

The Intermediate Value Theorem

Back to the Questions

Recall: Direct Substitution
Property

Theorem (The Direct Substitution Property)

If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of f,
then
lim f(x) = f(a)
x→a

This property is so useful it’s worth naming.

Definition of Continuity
y
Definition
► Let f be a function defined near
a. We say that f is continuous at f(a)
a if
lim f(x) = f(a).
x→a

x
a
Definition of Continuity
y
Definition
► Let f be a function defined near
a. We say that f is continuous at f(a)
a if
lim f(x) = f(a).
x→a
► A function f is continuous if it is
continuous at every point in its
domain.
x
a
Scholium
Definition
Let f be a function defined near a. We say that f is continuous at a if

lim f(x) = f(a).

x→a

There are three important parts to this definition.

► The function has to have a limit at a,

► the function has to have a value at

► a, and these values have to agree.
Free Theorems

Theorem

(a) Any polynomial is continuous everywhere; that is, it is

continuous on R = ( − ∞ , ∞).
(b) Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is,
it is continuous on its domain.
Showing a function is continuous
Example
√
Let f(x) = 4x + 1. Show that f is continuous at 2.
Showing a function is continuous
Example
√
Let f(x) = 4x + 1. Show that f is continuous at 2.
Solution
We want to show that lim f(x) = f(2). We have
x→2
√ √ √
lim f(x) = lim 4x + 1 = lim(4x + 1) = 9 = 3 = f(2).
x→a x→2 x→2

Each step comes from the limit laws.

At which other points?
Question
√
As before, let f(x) = 4x + 1. At which points is f continuous?
At which other points?
Question
√
As before, let f(x) = 4x + 1. At which points is f continuous?
Solution
► If a > − 1/4, then lim(4x + 1 ) = 4a + 1 > 0, so
x→a
√ √ √
lim f(x) = lim 4x + 1 = lim(4x + 1) = 4a + 1 = f(a)
x→a x→a x→a

and f is continuous at a.
At which other points?
Question
√
As before, let f(x) = 4x + 1. At which points is f continuous?
Solution

√ a = − / 4, then 4x + 1 < 0 to the left of a, which means

If
► 1
4x + 1 is undefined. Still,
√ √ √
lim f(x) = lim 4x + 1 = lim (4x + 1) = 0 = 0 = f(a)
x→a+ x→a+ x→a+

so f is continuous on the right at a = −1/4.

Limit Laws give Continuity Laws

Theorem
If f(x) and g(x) are continuous at a and c is a constant, then the
following functions are also continuous at a:
► (f + g)(x) ► (fg)(x)
► (f − g)(x) f
► (x) (if g(a) ̸ = 0)
► (cf)(x) g
Sum of continuous is continuous
We want to show that
lim(f + g)(x) = (f + g)(a).
x→a
Sum of continuous is continuous
We want to show that
lim(f + g)(x) = (f + g)(a).
x→a

We just follow our nose.

Sum of continuous is continuous
We want to show that
lim(f + g)(x) = (f + g)(a).
x→a

We just follow our nose.

(def of f + g) lim(f + g)(x)
x→a
Sum of continuous is continuous
We want to show that
lim(f + g)(x) = (f + g)(a).
x→a

We just follow our nose.

(def of f + g) lim(f + g)(x) = lim
[f(x) + g(x)]
x→a
x→a
Sum of continuous is continuous
We want to show that
lim(f + g)(x) = (f + g)(a).
x→a

We just follow our nose.

(def of f + g) lim(f + g)(x) = lim
[f(x) + g(x)]
x→a
x→a
(if these limits exist)
Sum of continuous is continuous
We want to show that
lim(f + g)(x) = (f + g)(a).
x→a

We just follow our nose.

(def of f + g) lim(f + g)(x) = lim [f(x)
x→a x→a
+ g(x)]
= lim f(x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a
(if these limits exist)
Sum of continuous is continuous
We want to show that
lim(f + g)(x) = (f + g)(a).
x→a

We just follow our nose.

(def of f + g) lim(f + g)(x) = lim [f(x) + g(x)]
x→a x→a
(if these limits exist) = lim f(x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a
(they do; f
and g are cts.)
Sum of continuous is continuous
We want to show that
lim(f + g)(x) = (f + g)(a).
x→a

We just follow our nose.

(def of f + g) lim(f + g)(x) = lim [f(x) + g(x)]
x→a x→a
(if these limits exist) = lim f(x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a
(they do; f = f(a) + g(a)
and g are cts.)
Sum of continuous is continuous
We want to show that
lim(f + g)(x) = (f + g)(a).
x→a

We just follow our nose.

(def of f + g) lim(f + g)(x) = lim [f(x) + g(x)]
x→a x→a
(if these limits exist) = lim f(x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a
(they do; f and g are cts.) = f(a) + g(a)
(def of f + g again)
Sum of continuous is continuous
We want to show that
lim(f + g)(x) = (f + g)(a).
x→a

We just follow our nose.

(def of f + g) lim(f + g)(x) = lim [f(x) + g(x)]
x→a x→a
(if these limits exist) = lim f(x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a
(they do; f and g are cts.) = f(a) + g(a)
(def of f + g again) = (f + g)(a)
Sum of continuous is continuous
We want to show that
lim(f + g)(x) = (f + g ) ( a ) . "
x→a

We just follow our nose.

(def of f + g) lim(f + g)(x) = lim [f(x) + g(x)]
x→a x→a
(if these limits exist) = lim f(x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a
(they do; f and g are cts.) = f(a) + g(a)
(def of f + g again) = (f + g)(a)
Trig functions are continuous
► sin and cos are continuous
on R.

sin
Trig functions are continuous
► sin and cos are continuous
on R.

cos

sin
Trig functions are continuous
tan
► sin and cos are continuous
on R.
sin 1
►
tan = and sec = are cos
cos cos
continuous on their domain,
which is
{ π }
R\ + kπ k ∈ Z . sin
2
Trig functions are continuous
tan sec
► sin and cos are continuous
on R.
sin 1
►
tan = and sec = are cos
cos cos
continuous on their domain,
which is
{ π }
R\ + kπ k ∈ Z . sin
2
Trig functions are continuous
tan sec
► sin and cos are continuous
on R.
sin 1
►
tan = and sec = are cos
cos cos
continuous on their domain,
which is
{ π }
sin
R\ 2 + kπ k ∈ Z .
cos 1
►
cot = and csc = are
sin sin
continuous on their domain,
which is R \ { kπ | k ∈ Z }. cot
Trig functions are continuous
tan sec
► sin and cos are continuous
on R.
sin 1
►
tan = and sec = are cos
cos cos
continuous on their domain,
which is
{ π }
sin
R\ 2 + kπ k ∈ Z .
cos 1
►
cot = and csc = are
sin sin
continuous on their domain,
which is R \ { kπ | k ∈ Z }. cot csc
Exp and Log are continuous
For any base a > 1,
► the function x '→ a x is ax
continuous on R
Exp and Log are continuous
For any base a > 1,
► the function x '→ a x is ax
loga x
continuous on R
► the function loga is
continuous on its
domain: (0, ∞ )
Exp and Log are continuous
For any base a > 1,
► the function x '→ a x is ax
loga x
continuous on R
► the function loga is
continuous on its
domain: (0, ∞ )
► In particular ex and
ln = loge are continuous
on their domains
Inverse trigonometric functions
are mostly continuous
► sin−1 and cos−1 are continuous on (−1, 1), left continuous at 1,
and right continuous at −1.

π/2
sin−1
Inverse trigonometric functions
are mostly continuous
► sin−1 and cos−1 are continuous on (−1, 1), left continuous at 1,
and right continuous at −1.

π
cos−1
π/2
sin−1
Inverse trigonometric functions
are mostly continuous
► sin−1 and cos−1 are continuous on (−1, 1), left continuous at 1,
and right continuous at −1.
► sec−1 and csc−1 are continuous on ( − ∞ , − 1 ) ∪ (1, ∞), left
continuous at −1, and right continuous at 1.

π
cos−1 sec−1
π/2
sin−1
Inverse trigonometric functions
are mostly continuous
► sin−1 and cos−1 are continuous on (−1, 1), left continuous at 1,
and right continuous at −1.
► sec−1 and csc−1 are continuous on ( − ∞ , − 1 ) ∪ (1, ∞), left
continuous at −1, and right continuous at 1.

π
cos−1 sec−1
π/2
−1
csc−1
sin

π/2
Inverse trigonometric functions
are mostly continuous
► sin−1 and cos−1 are continuous on (−1, 1), left continuous at 1,
and right continuous at −1.
► sec−1 and csc−1 are continuous on ( − ∞ , − 1 ) ∪ (1, ∞), left
continuous at −1, and right continuous at 1.
► tan−1 and cot−1 are continuous on R.
π
cos−1 sec−1
π/2
tacns−c1
sin−1
−1

π/2
Inverse trigonometric functions
are mostly continuous
► sin−1 and cos−1 are continuous on (−1, 1), left continuous at 1,
and right continuous at −1.
► sec−1 and csc−1 are continuous on ( − ∞ , − 1 ) ∪ (1, ∞), left

continuous at −1, and right continuous at 1.

► tan−1 and cot−1 are continuous on R.

π
cot−1 cos−1 sec−1
π/2
tacns−c1
sin−1
−1

π/2
What could go wrong?

In what ways could a function f fail to be continuous at a point a?

Look again at the equation from the definition:

lim f(x) = f(a)

x→a
Continuity FAIL
Example
{
x2 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. At which points is f continuous?
Let f(x) =
2x if 1 < x ≤ 2
Continuity FAIL: no limit
Example
{
x2 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. At which points is f continuous?
Let f(x) =
2x if 1 < x ≤ 2

Solution
At any point a besides 1, lim f(x) = f(a) because f is represented by a
x→a
polynomial near a, and polynomials have the direct substitution property.

lim f(x) = lim x2 = 12 = 1 and lim f(x) = lim 2x = 2(1) = 2

x→1 − x→1 − x→1+ x→1+

So f has no limit at 1. Therefore f is not continuous at 1.

Graphical Illustration of Pitfall #1
y
4

3 The function cannot be

continuous at a point if the
2
function has no limit at that
1 point.

x
−1 1 2
−1
Graphical Illustration of Pitfall #1
y
4

3 The function cannot be

continuous at a point if the
2

1 FAIL function has no limit at that

point.

x
−1 1
−1
2
Continuity FAIL
Example
Let x2 + 2x + 1
f (x) =
x+ 1

At which points is f continuous?

Continuity FAIL: no value
Example
Let x2 + 2x + 1
f (x) =
x+ 1

At which points is f continuous?

Solution
Because f is rational, it is continuous on its whole domain. Note that
− 1 is not in the domain of f, so f is not continuous there.
Graphical Illustration of Pitfall #2
y

1 The function cannot be

continuous at a point outside
its domain (that is, a point
x
−1 where it has no value).
Graphical Illustration of Pitfall #2
y

FAIL
1 The function cannot be
continuous at a point outside
its domain (that is, a point
x
−1 where it has no value).
Continuity FAIL
Example
Let {
7 if x ̸ = 1
f(x) =
π if x = 1
At which points is f continuous?
Continuity FAIL: value ̸= limit
Example
Let {
7 if x ̸ = 1
f(x) =
π if x = 1
At which points is f continuous?

Solution
f is not continuous at 1 because f(1) = π but lim f(x) = 7.
x→1
Graphical Illustration of Pitfall #3

7 If the function has a limit and

a value at a point the two
π must still agree.
x
1
Graphical Illustration of Pitfall #3

7 If the function has a limit and

a value at a point the two
FA π

x
must still agree.

IL 1
Special types of discontinuities

removable discontinuity The limit lim f(x) exists, but f is not

x→a
defined at a or its value at a is not equal to the limit at a.

jump discontinuity The limits lim f(x) and lim f(x) exist, but are
x→a − x→a+
different.
Special discontinuities graphically
y y

7 2
π 1
x x
1 1
removable jump
Special discontinuities graphically
y y
Presto! continuous!
7 2
π 1
x x
1 1
removable jump
Special discontinuities graphically
y y
Presto! continuous!
7 2
π 1 continuous?
x x
1 1
removable jump
Special discontinuities graphically
y y
Presto! continuous!
7 2 continuous?
π 1
x x
1 1
removable jump
Special discontinuities graphically
y y
Presto! continuous!
7 2
continuous?
π 1
x x
1 1
removable jump
Special types of discontinuities

removable discontinuity The limit lim f(x) exists, but f is not

x→a
defined at a or its value at a is not equal to the limit at a.
By re-defining f(a) = lim f(x), f can be made continuous
x→a
at a
jump discontinuity The limits lim f(x) and lim f(x) exist, but are
x→a − x→a+
different.
Special types of discontinuities

removable discontinuity The limit lim f(x) exists, but f is not

x→a
defined at a or its value at a is not equal to the limit at a.
By re-defining f(a) = lim f(x), f can be made continuous
x→a
at a
jump discontinuity The limits lim f(x) and lim f(x) exist, but are
x→a − x→a+
different. The function cannot be made continuous by
changing a single value.
The greatest integer function
[x ] is the greatest integer ≤ x. y
3
x y=
[x ] 2 [x ]
01 10
1.5 1 1
1.9 1 x
2.1 2 −2 −1 1 2 3
−0.5 − 1 −1
−0.9 − 1
−1.1 − 2 −2
The greatest integer function
[x ] is the greatest integer ≤ x. y
3
x y=
[x ] 2 [x ]
01 10
1.5 1 1
1.9 1 x
2.1 2 −2 −1 1 2 3
−0.5 − 1 −1
−0.9 − 1
−1.1 − 2 −2
This function has a jump discontinuity at each integer.
Outline

Continuity

The Intermediate Value Theorem

Back to the Questions

A Big Time Theorem

Theorem (The Intermediate Value Theorem)

Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and let N be
any number between f(a) and f(b), where f(a) ̸ = f(b). Then there
exists a number c in (a, b) such that f(c) = N.
Illustrating the IVT
f(x)

Theorem

x
Illustrating the IVT
f(x)

Theorem
Suppose that f is continuous
on the closed interval [a, b]

x
Illustrating the IVT
f(x)

Theorem
Suppose that f is continuous f(b)
on the closed interval [a, b]

f(a)

a
b x
Illustrating the IVT
f(x)

Theorem
Suppose that f is continuous f(b)
on the closed interval [a, b]
N
and let N be any number
between f(a) and f(b), where f(a)
f(a) ̸ = f(b).

a
b x
Illustrating the IVT
f(x)

Theorem
Suppose that f is continuous f(b)
on the closed interval [a, b]
N
and let N be any number
between f(a) and f(b), f(a)
f(a) ̸ = f(b). Then there exists
where
a number c in (a, b) such that
f(c) = N.
a c
b x
Illustrating the IVT
f(x)

Theorem
Suppose that f is continuous f(b)
on the closed interval [a, b]
N
and let N be any number
between f(a) and f(b), f(a)
f(a) ̸ = f(b). Then there exists
where
a number c in (a, b) such that
f(c) = N.
a
b x
Illustrating the IVT
f(x)

Theorem
Suppose that f is continuous f(b)
on the closed interval [a, b]
N
and let N be any number
between f(a) and f(b), f(a)
f(a) ̸ = f(b). Then there exists
where
a number c in (a, b) such that
f(c) = N.
ac1 c2 c3b x
What the IVT does not say

The Intermediate Value Theorem is an “existence” theorem.

► It does not say how many such c exist.

► It also does not say how to find c.

Still, it can be used in iteration or in conjunction with other
theorems to answer these questions.
Using the IVT to find zeroes
Example
Let f(x) = x3 − x − 1. Show that there is a zero for f on the interval
[1, 2].
Using the IVT to find zeroes
Example
Let f(x) = x3 − x − 1. Show that there is a zero for f on the interval
[1, 2].

Solution
f(1) = − 1 and f(2) = 5. So there is a zero between 1 and 2.
Using the IVT to find zeroes
Example
Let f(x) = x3 − x − 1. Show that there is a zero for f on the interval
[1, 2].

Solution
f(1) = − 1 and f(2) = 5. So there is a zero between 1 and 2.

In fact, we can “narrow in” on the zero by the method of bisections.

Finding a zero by bisection
y
x f(x)

x
Finding a zero by bisection
y
x f(x)
1 —1

x
Finding a zero by bisection
y
x f(x)
1 —1

2 5

x
Finding a zero by bisection
y
x f(x)
1 —1

1.5 0.875
2 5

x
Finding a zero by bisection
y
x f(x)
1 —1
1.25 — 0.296875

1.5 0.875
2 5

x
Finding a zero by bisection
y
x f(x)
1 —1
1.25 — 0.296875

1.375 0.224609
1.5 0.875
2 5

x
Finding a zero by bisection
y
x f(x)
1 —1
1.25 — 0.296875
1.3125 — 0.0515137
1.375 0.224609
1.5 0.875
2 5

x
Finding a zero by bisection
y
x f(x)
1 —1
1.25 — 0.296875
1.3125 — 0.0515137
1.375 0.224609
1.5 0.875
2 5

x
(More careful analysis yields
1.32472.)
Using the IVT to assert existence
of numbers
Example
Suppose we are unaware of the square root function and that it’s
continuous. Prove that the square root of two exists.
Using the IVT to assert existence
of numbers
Example
Suppose we are unaware of the square root function and that it’s
continuous. Prove that the square root of two exists.

Proof.
Let f(x) = x2, a continuous function on [1, 2].
Using the IVT to assert existence
of numbers
Example
Suppose we are unaware of the square root function and that it’s
continuous. Prove that the square root of two exists.

Proof.
Let f(x) = x2, a continuous function on [1, 2]. Note f(1) = 1 and
f(2) = 4. Since 2 is between 1 and 4, there exists a point c in (1, 2)
such that
f(c) = c2 = 2.
Outline

Continuity

The Intermediate Value Theorem

Back to the Questions

Back to the Questions
True or False
At one point in your life you were exactly three feet tall.
Question 1

Answer
The answer is TRUE.
► Let h(t) be height, which varies continuously over time.

► Then h(birth) < 3 ft and h(now) > 3 ft.

► So by the IVT there is a point c in (birth, now) where

h(c) = 3.
Back to the Questions
True or False
At one point in your life you were exactly three feet tall.

True or False
At one point in your life your height in inches equaled your weight in
pounds.
Question 2
Answer
The answer is TRUE.
► Let h(t) be height in inches and w(t) be weight in pounds, both

varying continuously over time.

► Let f(t) = h(t) − w(t).

► For most of us (call your mom), f(birth) > 0 and f(now) < 0.

► So by the IVT there is a point c in (birth, now) where f(c) =

► 0. In other words,

h(c) − w(c) = 0 ⇐⇒ h(c) = w(c).

Back to the Questions
True or False
At one point in your life you were exactly three feet tall.

True or False
At one point in your life your height in inches equaled your weight in
pounds.

True or False
Right now there are two points on opposite sides of the Earth with
exactly the same temperature.
Question 3
Answer
The answer is TRUE.
► Let T(θ) be the temperature at the point on the equator at

longitude θ.
► How can you express the statement that the temperature on

opposite sides is the same?

► How can you ensure this is true?
Question 3
► Let f(θ) = T(θ) − T(θ + 180◦)
► Then
f(0) = T(0) − T(180)
while
f(180) = T(180) − T(360) = −f(0)
► So somewhere between 0 and 180 there is a point θ where
f(θ) = 0!
Summary
What have we learned today?

► Definition: a function is continuous at a point if the limit of the

function at that point agrees with the value of the function at
that point.
► We often make a fundamental assumption that functions we
meet in nature are continuous.
► The Intermediate Value Theorem is a basic property of real
numbers that we need and use a lot.