EMT 212

Analog Electronic II

Chapter 1- Operational Amplifier
1.0 Operational Amplifier
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Ideal Op-Amp
1.3 Op-amp input modes
1.4 Op-amp Parameters
1.5 Operation
Single-mode
Differential-mode
Common-mode operation
1.6 Op-Amps basics
1.1 Introduction
Uses of Op-Amp
To provide voltage amplitude changes
(amplitude and polarity)
Comparators
Oscillators
Filter circuits
Instrumentation circuits
1.1 Introduction
Definition:
The operational amplifier or op-amp is an
integrated circuit that amplifies the difference
between two input voltages and produces a
single output.
A typical op-amp is powered by two dc voltages
and has an inverting(-) and a non-inverting input
(+) and an output.
Op-amps were used to model the basic
mathematical operations; addition, subtraction,
integration, differentiation, etc, in electronic
analog computers.
1.1 Introduction
Stages of an Op-amp
INPUT
STAGE
OUTPUT
STAGE
GAIN
STAGE
1.1 Introduction
Two Power Supply
Inverting input
Non-inverting input
One Output Terminal
Two Input Terminal
+V : Positive PS
-V : Negative PS
Op-amp schematic
symbol
1.2 Ideal Op-Amp
Practical Op-Amp
1.2 Ideal Op-Amp
Ideal Op-Amp
1.2 Ideal Op-Amp
Infinite input impedance
Zero output impedance
Infinite open-loop gain
Infinite bandwidth
Zero noise contribution
Zero DC output offset
Both differential inputs stick
together
Ideal Op-Amp Practical Op-Amp
input impedance 500k-2MO
output impedance 20-100 O
open-loop gain (20k to 200k)
Bandwidth limited (a few kHz)
noise contribution
Non-zero DC output offset
Properties
1.2 Ideal Op-Amp
Infinite Input Impedance
Input impedance is measured across the input
terminals
It is the Thevenin resistance of the internal
connection between the two input terminals.
Input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to
input current
in
in
in
I
V
Z =
I
in
1.2 Ideal Op-Amp
Infinite Input Impedance
When Z
i
is infinite, the input current is zero.
the op amp will neither supply current to a
circuit nor will it accept current from any
external circuit.
In real, the resistance is 500kO to 2MO
1.2 Ideal Op-Amp
Zero Output Impedance
Looking back into the output terminal, we see
voltage source with an internal resistance
I
in
1.2 Ideal Op-Amp
Zero Output Impedance
The internal resistance of the op-amp is op-amp
output impedance, Z
out
.
This internal resistance is in series with the load,
reducing the output voltage available to the load
Real op-amps have output impedance in the range
20-100 O.
1.2 Ideal Op-Amp
Infinite Open-Loop Gain
Open-Loop Gain, A is the gain of the op-amp without
feedback
In the ideal op-amp, A is infinite
In real op-amp is (20k to 200k)

in v out
V A V =
1.2 Ideal Op-Amp
Infinite Bandwidth
The ideal op-amp will amplify all signals from DC to
the highest AC frequencies
In real op-amps, the bandwidth is rather limited
This limitation is specified by the Gain-Bandwidth
product, which is equal to the frequency where the
amplifier gain becomes unity
Some op-amps, such as 741 family, have very limited
bandwidth up to a few kHz

1.2 Ideal Op-Amp
Zero Noise Contribution
in an ideal op amp, all noise voltages produced are
external to the op amp. Thus any noise in the output
signal must have been in the input signal as well
the ideal op amp contributes nothing extra to the
output noise
1.2 Ideal Op-Amp
Zero Output Offset
The output offset voltage of any amplifier is the
output voltage that exists when it should be zero
The voltage amplifier sees zero input voltage when
both inputs are grounded. This connection should
produce a zero output voltage
If the output is not zero then there is said to be an
output voltage present
In the ideal op amp this offset voltage is zero volts,
but in practical op amps the output offset voltage is
nonzero
1.2 Ideal Op-Amp
Both Differential Inputs Stick Together
this means that a voltage applied to one inverting
inputs also appears at the other non-inverting inputs
If we apply a voltage to the inverting input and then
connect a voltmeter between the non-inverting input
and the power supply common, then the voltmeter
will read the same potential on non-inverting as on
the inverting input
1.3 Op-Amp input Modes
Single-Ended input mode
input signal is connected to one input and the other
input is grounded.
1. Inverting () terminal is grounded and input
signal is applied to the non-inverting (+)
terminal
In this configuration, the resultant output signal is in
phase with the input signal
1.3 Op-Amp input Modes
2. The non-inverting (+) terminal is grounded and
input signal is applied to the inverting ()
terminal
In this configuration, the resultant output signal is in
anti-phase with the input signal
1.3 Op-Amp input Modes
Differential mode input
two out-of-phase signals are applied with the
difference of the two amplified and produced at the
output
2 1 in in d
d d out
V V V
V A V
=
=
1.3 Op-Amp input Modes
Common mode input
two signals of same phase, frequency, and amplitude
are applied to the inputs which results in no output
(signals cancel).
Practically, a small output signal will result. This is
called common-mode rejection. This type of mode
is used for removal of unwanted noise signals
1.4 Op-Amp Parameters
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
The ability of amplifier to reject the common-mode
signals.
Ratio of open-loop gain to common-mode gain.





The higher the CMRR, the better
open-loop gain is high and common-mode gain is low.
cm
ol
A
A
CMRR =
| | dB log 20
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
cm
ol
A
A
CMRR
1.4 Op-Amp Parameters
Example
A certain op-amp has an open-loop differential
voltage gain of 100, 000 and a common-mode
gain of 0.2.
Determine the CMRR and express it in decibels.
1.4 Op-Amp Parameters
Common-Mode Input Voltage
The range of input voltages which, when
applied to both inputs, will not cause clipping or
other output distortion.

Input Offset Voltage
The differential dc voltage required between
the inputs to force the output to zero volts.
Range between 2 mV.
1.4 Op-Amp Parameters
Input Bias Current
The dc current required by the inputs of the amplifier
to properly operate the first stage.
Is the average of both input currents.
1.4 Op-Amp Parameters
Input Impedance
Is the total resistance between the inverting and
non-inverting inputs.
1. Differential input impedance is measured by the
changes of differential input voltage over changes of
bias current:
1.4 Op-Amp Parameters
2. Common-mode input impedance is measured by
the changes of common-mode input voltage over
changes of bias current
1.4 Op-Amp Parameters
Input Offset Current
The difference in the input bias currents:
2 1
I I I
os
=
1.4 Op-Amp Parameters
Input Offset Current
The difference in the input bias currents

offset voltage:
( )
in in in os
R I I R I R I V
2 1 2 1
= =
in os os
R I V =
in os v error out
R I A V =
) (
1.4 Op-Amp Parameters
Output Impedance
The resistance viewed from the output terminal of the
op-amp.

1.4 Op-Amp Parameters
Slew Rate
The maximum rate of change of the output voltage in
response to a step input voltage.
Test circuit
1.4 Op-Amp Parameters
Slew Rate
t
V
SlewRate
out
A
A
=
) (
max max
V V V
out
+ = A
1.4 Op-Amp Parameters
Example:
Determine the slew rate:
t
V
SlewRate
out
A
A
=
s V
s
V V
SlewRate

/ 18
1
) 9 ( 9
=
+
=
1.4 Op-Amp Parameters
Example:
When a pulse is applied to an op-amp, the output
voltage goes from -8 V to +7 V in 0.75 s.
What is the slew rate?
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit











Basic differential amplifier circuit
1.5 Operation
If an input signal is
applied to either input
with the other input is
connected to ground,
the operation is
referred to as single-
ended.
The input signal is applied to input 1
1.5 Operation
If an input signal is
applied to either input
with the other input is
connected to ground,
the operation is referred
to as single-ended.
The input signal is applied to input 2
1.5 Operation
If two opposite-polarity input signals are applied, the
operation is referred to as double-ended:
V
i1
and V
i2
are
in opposite
polarity
1.5 Operation
If the same input is
applied to both inputs,
the operation is called
common-mode.
V
i
is sometimes
known as V
cm
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
The differential amplifier
is a circuit that has two
separate inputs and
produces two separate
outputs where the
emitters are connected
together.
It amplifies the difference
voltage between the two
input (V
diff
).
There are three
operations can be done in
a differential amplifier
circuit; dc bias, ac
operation and common
mode operation.
Figure: The basic differential amplifier.
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
DC bias of differential
amplifier circuit.
DC Analysis:
0 = +
EE E E BE
V R I V
E
BE EE
E
R
V V
I

=
2
2 1
E
c c
I
I I = =
c
E
cc c c cc c c
R
I
V R I V V V
2
2 1
= = =
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
Example
Calculate the dc voltages
and currents:
Solution
mA 5 . 2
k 3 . 3
V 7 . 0 V 9
~
O

=
E
BE EE
E
R
V V
I
mA 25 . 1
2
m 5 . 2

2
2 1
= =
= =
E
c c
I
I I
c c cc c
R I V V =
V 1 . 4
) k 9 . 3 )( m 25 . 1 ( 9
=
= V V
c
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
AC Analysis:
For ac analysis, V
CC

and V
EE
may be
considered as ground.
AC connection of differential
amplifier
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
AC Analysis
AC equivalent of differential amplifier
circuit
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
AC Analysis
Single-Ended AC
Voltage Gain
Single-ended ac
voltage gain is
calculated by
connecting one of
voltage sources to one
input and the other
connected to ground.
1
1
1
i
o
v
V
V
A =
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
AC Analysis
Single-Ended AC Voltage Gain
AC equivalent
circuit
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
AC Analysis
Single-Ended AC
Voltage Gain
i
i
b c
r
V
I I
2
1
| | = =
0
1
=
i b i b i
r I r I V
b b b
I I I = =
2 1
i i i
r r r = =
2 1
| | | = =
2 1
i
i
b
r
V
I
2
1
=
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
AC Analysis
Single-Ended AC
Voltage Gain







where
1
1
2

2

1
i
e
c
c
i
i
c c o
V
r
R
R
r
V
R I V
|
|
|
=
=
=
e
c
i
o
v
r
R
V
V
A
2
1
1
= =
E
e
I
mV
r
26
=
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
Example:
Calculate the single-
ended output voltage
Vo1.

Given that;
75
k 20
2 1
2 1
= =
O = =
| |
i i
r r
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
Solution
A 193
k 43
V 7 . 0 V 9

7 . 0
=
O

=
E
EE
E
R
V V
I
( )( )
V 5 . 4
k 47 A 5 . 96 9
=
=
=
c c cc c
R I V V
1 . 88
) 267 ( 2
k 47
2
= = =
e
c
v
r
R
A
V 176 . 0
) mV 2 )( 1 . 88 (
=
=
=
i v o
V A V
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
AC Analysis - Double ended
A similar analysis can be used to show that for the
condition of signals applied to both inputs, the
differential voltage gain magnitude is:



where:
i
c
d
o
d
r
R
V
V
A
2
|
= =
2 1 i i d
V V V =
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
AC Analysis - Common-
mode
To operate a differential
amplifier in a common-
mode connection, the
same ac voltage source
is applied to both inputs.
In most ac operation, a
differential amplifier
provides large
amplification, but in this
operation it provides
small amplification.
Common-mode connection
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
AC Analysis - Common-mode
E i
i
b
R r
V
I
) 1 ( 2 + +
=
|
i
E b i
b
r
R I V
I
) 1 ( 2 +
=
|
1.5 Operation - Differential Amplifier Circuit
AC Analysis - Common-mode
E i
c
i
o
v
R r
R
V
V
A
) 1 ( 2 + +
= =
|
|
E i
c i
c b c c o
R r
R V
R I R I V
) 1 ( 2
1
+ +
= = =
|
|
|
1.6 Op-Amp Basics
High input impedance
Low output impedance
Made using difference amplifiers having 2 inputs
and at least 1 output
1.6 Op-Amp Basics
AC equivalent circuit






Input impedance, Ri is typically very high
Output voltage, Vo is amplifier gain times input signal
taken through output impedance, Ro which is typically
low.
Ideal op-amp would have infinite input impedance, zero
output impedance and infinite voltage gain.
Ideal
Practical
1.6 Op-Amp Basics - constant-gain multiplier
Basic circuit connection
The input voltage
V
1
is applied to the
inverting terminal
through R
1
.
The output voltage
V
o
is fed back to the
inverting terminal
through R
f
.
The output voltage V
o
is in
antiphase with the input voltage
V
i
The non-inverting
terminal is
grounded
1.6 Op-Amp Basics - constant-gain multiplier
AC equivalent circuit
Practical op-amp
1.6 Op-Amp Basics - constant-gain multiplier
AC equivalent circuit
Ideal op-amp Redrawn
1.6 Op-Amp Basics - constant-gain multiplier
Using superposition theorem

i) V
1
only (set A
v
V
i
= 0)



ii) A
v
V
i
only (set V
1
= 0)
1
1
1
V
R R
R
V
f
f
i
+
=
( )
i v
f
i
V A
R R
R
V
+
=
1
1
2
1.6 Op-Amp Basics - constant-gain multiplier







Solving for Vi, gives us;

2 1 i i i
V V V + =
( )
i v
f f
f
V A
R R
R
V
R R
R

+
+
+
=
1
1
1
1
( )
f
i v f
R R
V A R V R
+
+
=
1
1 1
1
1
) 1 (
V
R A R
R
V
v f
f
i
+ +
=
1.6 Op-Amp Basics - constant-gain multiplier
Usually and

Then
1
1
V
R A
R
V
v
f
i
~
1 >>
v
A
f v
R R A >>
1
1 1
1
1
R
R
V
V
V
R A
R
A V A V
f
o
v
f
v i v o
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
The ratio V
o
/V
1
is dependent on
the external components R
f
and
R
1
only.
1.6 Op-Amp Basics
Basic Op-amp unity gain



If R
f
= R
1
;



Shown that the output voltage equal to input voltage
with 180 phase inversion.
1
1
=
V
V
o
1 1
R
R
V
V
f
o
=
1.6 Op-Amp Basics
Basic Op-amp constant magnitude gain



If R
f
= 10R
1
;



Shown that the output voltage is equal to 10X the
input voltage with 180 phase inversion.
10
1
=
V
V
o
1 1
R
R
V
V
f
o
=