THE LAYERS OF

THE
ATMOSPHERE
PREPARED BY: TYPE YOUR NAME HERE
S7ES - IVD - 5

• Discuss how energy from the Sun interacts

with the layers of the atmosphere
IN THIS POWERPOINT PRESENTATION, WE
WILL BE DISCUSSING THE FOLLOWING:
 The Atmosphere
 Composition of Air
 Ingredients of Life
 The Atmospheric Orbit
 The Magnetosphere
 Extraterrestrial Atmospheres
 Earth, Venus and Mars
 The Six Layers of the Atmosphere
 Weather and Climate
THE ATMOSPHERE
 Earth is the only planet in the solar system with an atmosphere that can sustain
life. The blanket of gases not only contains the air that we breathe but also
protects us from the blasts of heat and radiation emanating from the sun. It
warms the planet by day and cools it at night.
 Earth's atmosphere is about 300 miles (480 kilometers) thick, but most of it is
within 10 miles (16 km) the surface. Air pressure decreases with altitude. At
sea level, air pressure is about 14.7 pounds per square inch (1 kilogram per
square centimeter). At 10,000 feet (3 km), the air pressure is 10 pounds per
square inch (0.7 kg per square cm). There is also less oxygen to breathe.
THE ATMOSPHERE
 We live at the bottom of an invisible ocean called the atmosphere, a layer of gases
surrounding our planet. Nitrogen and oxygen account for 99 percent of the gases in
dry air, with argon, carbon dioxide, helium, neon, and other gases making
up minute portions. Water vapor and dust are also part of Earth’s atmosphere.
Other planets and moons have very different atmospheres, and some have no
atmospheres at all.
 The atmosphere is so spread out that we barely notice it, yet its weight is equal to a
layer of water more than 10 meters (34 feet) deep covering the entire planet. The
bottom 30 kilometers (19 miles) of the atmosphere contains about 98 percent of
its mass. The atmosphere—air—is much thinner at high altitudes. There is no
atmosphere in space.
THE ATMOSPHERE
 Scientists say many of the gases in our atmosphere were ejected into the air by
early volcanoes. At that time, there would have been little or no free
oxygen surrounding the Earth. Free oxygen consists of oxygen molecules not
attached to another element, like carbon (to form carbon dioxide)
or hydrogen (to form water).
 Free oxygen may have been added to the atmosphere by primitiveorganisms,
probably bacteria, during photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process
a plant or other autotroph uses to make food and oxygen from carbon dioxide
and water. Later, more complex forms of plant life added more oxygen to the
atmosphere. The oxygen in today’s atmosphere probably took millions of
years to accumulate.
THE ATMOSPHERE
 The atmosphere acts as a gigantic filter, keeping out most ultraviolet
radiation while letting in the sun’s warming rays. Ultraviolet radiation is
harmful to living things, and is what causes sunburns. Solar heat, on the other
hand, is necessary for all life on Earth.
 Earth’s atmosphere has a layered structure. From the ground toward the sky,
the layers are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere,
and exosphere. Another layer, called the ionosphere, extends from the
mesosphere to the exosphere. Beyond the exosphere is outer space. The
boundaries between atmospheric layers are not clearly defined, and change
depending on latitude and season.
THE COMPOSITION OF AIR

 Nitrogen — 78 percent
 Oxygen — 21 percent
 Argon — 0.93 percent
 Carbon dioxide — 0.04 percent
 Trace amounts of neon, helium, methane, krypton and hydrogen, as well as
water vapor
INGREDIENTS OF LIFE
 Scientists have gathered enough information about other planets in our solar system to know that
none can support life as we know it. Life is not possible without a stable atmosphere containing the
right chemical ingredients for living organisms: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. These
ingredients must be balanced—not too thick or too thin. Life also depends on the presence of water.
 Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune all have atmospheres made mostly of hydrogen and helium.
These planets are called gas giants, because they are mostly made of gas and do not have a solid
outer crust.
 Mercury and Mars have some of the right ingredients, but their atmospheres are far too thin to
support life. The atmosphere of Venus is too thick—the planet's surface temperature is more than 460
degrees Celsius (860 degrees Fahrenheit).
 Jupiter's moon Europa has a thin atmosphere rich with oxygen. It is likely covered by a huge ocean
of liquid water. Some astrobiologists think that if life will develop elsewhere in the solar system, it
will be near vents at the bottom of Europa's ocean.
THE ATMOSPHERIC ORBIT

Although the International Space Station orbits in the

thermosphere, most satellites orbit the Earth outside its atmosphere.
GPS satellites, for instance, are in orbit more than 20,000
kilometers (12,400 miles) above the Earth.
THE MAGNETOSPHERE

Earths magnetosphere is not considered part of the atmosphere. The

magnetosphere, formed by the Earths magnetic fields, protects the
atmosphere by preventing it from being blown away by powerful
solar wind.
EXTRATERRESTRIAL ATMOSPHERES

 All the planets in our solar system have atmospheres. Most of these atmospheres are radically
different from Earth’s, although they contain many of the same elements.
 The solar system has two major types of planets: terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth,
and Mars) and gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune).
 The atmospheres of the terrestrial planets are somewhat similar to Earth’s. Mercury’s
atmosphere contains only a thin exosphere dominated by hydrogen, helium, and oxygen.
Venus’ atmosphere is much thicker than Earth’s, preventing a clear view of the planet. Its
atmosphere is dominated by carbon dioxide, and features swirling clouds of sulfuric acid. The
atmosphere on Mars is also dominated by carbon dioxide, although unlike Venus, it is quite
thin.
EXTRATERRESTRIAL ATMOSPHERES
 Gas giants are composed of gases. Their atmospheres are almost entirely hydrogen and
helium. The presence of methane in the atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune give the planets
their bright blue color.
 In the lower atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn, clouds of water, ammonia, and hydrogen
sulfide form clear bands. Fast winds separate light-colored bands, called zones, from dark-
colored bands, called belts. Other weather phenomena, such as cyclones and lightning, create
patterns in the zones and belts. Jupiter’s Great Red Spot is a centuries-old cyclone that is the
largest storm in the solar system.
 The moons of some planets have their own atmospheres. Saturn’s largest moon, Titan, has a
thick atmosphere made mostly of nitrogen and methane. The way sunlight breaks up methane
in Titan’s ionosphere helps give the moon an orange color.
EXTRATERRESTRIAL ATMOSPHERES
 Most celestial bodies, including all the asteroids in the asteroid belt and our own moon, do not
have atmospheres. The lack of an atmosphere on the Moon means it does not experience
weather. With no wind or water to erode them, many craters on the Moon have been there for
hundreds and even thousands of years.
 The way a celestial body’s atmosphere is structured and what it’s made of allow
astrobiologists to speculate what kind of life the planet or moon may be able to support.
Atmospheres, then, are important markers in space exploration.
 A planet or moon’s atmosphere must contain specific chemicals to support life as we know it.
These chemicals include hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. Although Venus, Mars, and
Titan have similar atmospheric gases, there is nowhere in the solar system besides Earth with
an atmosphere able to support life. Venus’ atmosphere is far too thick, Mars’ far too thin, and
Titan’s far too cold.
EARTH, VENUS AND MARS
 To better understand the formation and composition of Earth, scientists
sometimes compare our planet with Venus and Mars. All three of these planets
are rocky in nature and are part of the inner solar system, meaning that they
are in between the sun and the asteroid belt.
 Venus has an almost fully carbon dioxide atmosphere, with traces of nitrogen
and sulfuric acid. The planet, however, also has a runaway greenhouse effect
on its surface. Spacecraft have to be heavily reinforced to survive the crushing
pressure (90 times heavier than Earth), and the oven-like temperatures (872
Fahrenheit or 467 Celsius), found at its surface. The clouds are also so thick
that the surface is invisible in visible light. Because not much sun reaches the
surface, this means that Venus has no significant seasonal temperature
changes.
EARTH, VENUS AND MARS
 Mars also has a mostly carbon dioxide atmosphere, with traces of nitrogen, argon, oxygen,
carbon monoxide and some other gases. On this planet, the atmosphere is about 100 times
thinner than Earth's — a very different situation from the ancient past, when geological
evidence shows that water used to flow on the surface more than 4.5 billion years ago.
Scientists suggest that the Martian atmosphere may have thinned over time, either because the
sun stripped away the lighter molecules in the atmosphere, or because a huge impact by an
asteroid or comet catastrophically stripped the atmosphere. Mars undergoes temperature
swings influenced by how much sunlight reaches the surface, which also affects its polar ice
caps (another great influence on the atmosphere.)
 Scientists routinely compare small, rocky exoplanets to Earth, Venus and Mars to get a better
sense of their habitability. The routinely accepted definition of "habitability" is that a planet is
close enough to the star for liquid water to exist on its surface. Too far, and the water turns icy;
too close, and the water evaporates. However, habitability not only depends on the star-planet
distance, but also the planet's atmosphere, the star's variability, and other factors.
SIX LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE:
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Ionosphere
Exosphere
SIX LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE:
 Troposphere
The troposphere starts at the Earth's surface and extends 8 to 14.5 kilometers high
(5 to 9 miles). This part of the atmosphere is the most dense. Almost all weather is
in this region.
 Stratosphere
The stratosphere starts just above the troposphere and extends to 50 kilometers (31
miles) high. The ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters the solar ultraviolet
radiation, is in this layer.
 Mesosphere
The mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere and extends to 85 kilometers (53
miles) high. Meteors burn up in this layer
SIX LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE:
 Thermosphere
The thermosphere starts just above the mesosphere and extends to 600 kilometers
(372 miles) high. Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.
 Ionosphere
The ionosphere is an abundant layer of electrons and ionized atoms and molecules
that stretches from about 48 kilometers (30 miles) above the surface to the edge of
space at about 965 km (600 mi), overlapping into the mesosphere and thermosphere.
This dynamic region grows and shrinks based on solar conditions and divides
further into the sub-regions: D, E and F; based on what wavelength of solar
radiation is absorbed. The ionosphere is a critical link in the chain of Sun-Earth
interactions. This region is what makes radio communications possible.
 Exosphere
This is the upper limit of our atmosphere. It extends from the top of the
thermosphere up to 10,000 km (6,200 mi).
VIDEO PRESENTATION:

Layers of Atmosphere
Layers_Of_Atmosphere_The_Dr_Binocs_Show_Educational_Videos
_For_Kids[Mp3Converter.net].mp4
Earth’s Atmosphere
Earths_atmosphere[Mp3Converter.net].mp4
TROPOSPHERE

 The layer we call home  This layer has the air we breathe and the clouds
in the sky. The air is densest in this lowest layer.
 Closest to the surface of Earth, we have In fact, the troposphere contains three-quarters
the troposphere. “Tropos” means change. This of the mass of the entire atmosphere. The air
layer gets its name from the weather that is here is 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. The last
constantly changing and mixing up the gases in 1% is made of argon, water vapor, and carbon
this part of our atmosphere. dioxide.
 The troposphere is between 5 and 9 miles (8 and  When you feel the wind on your face, see clouds
14 kilometers) thick depending on where you are in the sky, and watch a bird flap its wings in
on Earth. It’s thinnest at the North and South flight, you’re experiencing the troposphere. It’s a
Pole. pretty nice layer to call home.
TROPOSPHERE
 The troposphere is the lowest
layer of Earth's atmosphere. Most of the mass (about  Air is warmest at the bottom of the troposphere
75-80%) of the atmosphere is in the troposphere. near ground level. Air gets colder as one rises
Most types of clouds are found in the troposphere, through the troposphere. That's why the peaks of
and almost all weather occurs within this layer. tall mountains can be snow-covered even in the
 The bottom of the troposphere is at Earth's surface. summertime.
The troposphere extends upward to about 10 km (6.2  Air pressure and the density of the air also
miles or about 33,000 feet) above sea level. The
decrease with altitude. That's why the cabins of
height of the top of the troposphere varies with
high-flying jet aircraft are pressurized.
latitude (it is lowest over the poles and highest at the
equator) and by season (it is lower in winter and  The layer immediately above the troposphere is
higher in summer). It can be as high as 20 km (12 called the stratosphere. The boundary between
miles or 65,000 feet) near the equator, and as low as the troposphere and the stratosphere is called the
7 km (4 miles or 23,000 feet) over the poles in "tropopause".
winter.
STRATOSPHERE
 This layer is 22 miles (35 kilometers) thick. The
 The layer made of layers stratosphere is where you’ll find the very
important ozone layer. The ozone layer helps protect us
 Above the troposphere and below the mesosphere, from ultraviolet radiation (UV) from the sun. In fact, the
we have the stratosphere. “Strat” means layer. ozone layer absorbs most of the UV radiation the sun
This layer of our atmosphere has its own set of sends to us. Life as we know it wouldn’t be possible
layers. There are no storms or turbulence here to without this layer of protection.
mix up the air, so cold, heavy air is at the bottom  The bottom of the stratosphere is around 10 km (6.2
and warm, light air is at the top. That’s the opposite miles or about 33,000 feet) above the ground at middle
of how the layers work in the troposphere, where latitudes. The top of the stratosphere occurs at an altitude
we live. If you were to climb a mountain in the of 50 km (31 miles). The height of the bottom of the
stratosphere you would have to take off your warm stratosphere varies with latitude and with the seasons.
clothes as you got closer to the top rather than The lower boundary of the stratosphere can be as high as
putting them on like we usually do. But there are no 20 km (12 miles or 65,000 feet) near the equator and as
mountains high enough to reach the stratosphere, so low as 7 km (4 miles or 23,000 feet) at the poles in
you don’t have to worry about that. winter. The lower boundary of the stratosphere is called
the tropopause; the upper boundary is called the
stratopause.
STRATOSPHERE
 Ozone, an unusual type of oxygen molecule that is
relatively abundant in the stratosphere, heats this layer  Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) are the exception.
as it absorbs energy from incoming ultraviolet radiation PSCs appear in the lower stratosphere near the poles
from the Sun. Temperatures rise as one moves upward in winter. They are found at altitudes of 15 to 25 km
through the stratosphere. This is exactly the opposite of (9.3 to 15.5 miles) and form only when temperatures
the behavior in the troposphere in which we live, where at those heights dip below -78° C. They appear to
temperatures drop with increasing altitude. Because of help cause the formation of the infamous holes in
this temperature stratification, there is little convection the ozone layer by "encouraging" certain chemical
and mixing in the stratosphere, so the layers of air there reactions that destroy ozone. PSCs are also called
are quite stable. Commercial jet aircraft fly in the lower nacreous clouds.
stratosphere to avoid the turbulence which is common
in the troposphere below.  Air is roughly a thousand times thinner at the top of
the stratosphere than it is at sea level. Because of
 The stratosphere is very dry; air there contains little
this, jet aircraft and weather balloons reach their
water vapor. Because of this, few clouds are found in
maximum operational altitudes within the
this layer; almost all clouds occur in the lower, more
stratosphere.
humid troposphere.
STRATOSPHERE
 Various types of waves and tides in the atmosphere
 Due to the lack of vertical convection in the
influence the stratosphere. Some of these waves
stratosphere, materials that get into the and tides carry energy from the troposphere
stratosphere can stay there for long times. Such upward into the stratosphere; others convey energy
is the case for the ozone-destroying chemicals from the stratosphere up into the mesosphere. The
called CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons). Large waves and tides influence the flows of air in the
volcanic eruptions and major meteorite impacts stratosphere and can also cause regional heating of
can fling aerosol particles up into the this layer of the atmosphere.
stratosphere where they may linger for months
 A rare type of electrical discharge, somewhat akin
or years, sometimes altering Earth's global
climate. Rocket launches inject exhaust gases to lightning, occurs in the stratosphere. These
"blue jets" appear above thunderstorms, and
into the stratosphere, producing uncertain
extend from the bottom of the stratosphere up to
consequences.
altitudes of 40 or 50 km (25 to 31 miles).
MESOSPHERE
 The middle layer
 The mesosphere is 22 miles (35 kilometers) thick.
 The mesosphere lies between the thermosphere The air is still thin, so you wouldn’t be able to
and the stratosphere. “Meso” means middle, breathe up in the mesosphere. But there is more gas
and this is the highest layer of the atmosphere in in this layer than there is out in the thermosphere.
which the gases are all mixed up rather than  Have you ever seen a meteor shower, where
being layered by their mass. meteors burn up and streak across the sky? Some
 The boundary between the mesosphere and the people call them shooting stars. Those meteors are
thermosphere above it is called the mesopause. burning up in the mesosphere. The meteors make it
through the exosphere and thermosphere without
At the bottom of the mesosphere is the
much trouble because those layers don’t have much
stratopause, the boundary between the
air. But when they hit the mesosphere, there are
mesosphere and the stratosphere below.
enough gases to cause friction and create heat.
MESOSPHERE
 The mesosphere is difficult to study, so less is known about this layer of  The stratosphere and mesosphere together are
the atmosphere than other layers. Weather balloons and other aircraft sometimes referred to as the middle atmosphere.
cannot fly high enough to reach the mesosphere. Satellites orbit above At the mesopause (the top of the mesosphere)
the mesosphere and cannot directly measure traits of this layer. and below, gases made of different types of
Scientists use instruments on sounding rockets to sample the atoms and molecules are thoroughly mixed
mesosphere directly, but such flights are brief and infrequent. Since it is together by turbulence in the atmosphere. Above
difficult to take measurements of the mesosphere directly using the mesosphere, in the thermosphere and
instruments, much about the mesosphere is still mysterious. beyond, gas particles collide so infrequently that
 Most meteors vaporize in the mesosphere. Some material from meteors the gases become somewhat separated based on
lingers in the mesosphere, causing this layer to have a relatively high the types of chemical elements they contain.
concentration of iron and other metal atoms. Very strange, high altitude  Various types of waves and tides in the
clouds called "noctilucent clouds" or "polar mesospheric clouds" atmosphere influence the mesosphere. These
sometime form in the mesosphere near the poles. These peculiar clouds waves and tides carry energy from the
form much, much higher up than other types of clouds. Odd electrical troposphere and the stratosphere upward into the
discharges akin to lightning, called "sprites" and "ELVES", mesosphere, driving most of its global
occasionally appear in the mesosphere dozens of kilometers (miles) circulation.
above thunderclouds in the troposphere below.
THERMOSPHERE

 The heat that won't keep you warm  This layer of Earth’s atmosphere is about 319
 The thermosphere lies between the exosphere miles (513 kilometers) thick. That’s much
and the mesosphere. “Thermo” means heat, thicker than the inner layers of the atmosphere,
and the temperature in this layer can reach up to but not nearly as thick as the exosphere.
4,500 degrees Fahrenheit. If you were to hang  The thermosphere is home to the International
out in the thermosphere, though, you would be Space Station as it orbits Earth. This is also
very cold because there aren’t enough gas where you’ll find low Earth orbit satellites.
molecules to transfer the heat to you. This also There’s a lot going on in the thermosphere!
means there aren’t enough molecules for sound
waves to travel through.
THERMOSPHERE
 The boundary between the thermosphere and the
 Temperatures climb sharply in the lower exosphere above it is called the thermopause. At
thermosphere (below 200 to 300 km altitude), the bottom of the thermosphere is the
then level off and hold fairly steady with mesopause, the boundary between the
increasing altitude above that height. Solar thermosphere and the mesosphere below.
activity strongly influences temperature in the  Although the thermosphere is considered part of
thermosphere. The thermosphere is typically Earth's atmosphere, the air density is so low in
about 200° C (360° F) hotter in the daytime than this layer that most of the thermosphere is what
at night, and roughly 500° C (900° F) hotter we normally think of as outer space. In fact, the
when the Sun is very active than at other times. most common definition says that space begins
Temperatures in the upper thermosphere can at an altitude of 100 km (62 miles), slightly
range from about 500° C (932° F) to 2,000° C above the mesopause at the bottom of the
(3,632° F) or higher. thermosphere. The space shuttle and the
International Space Station both orbit Earth
within the thermosphere!
THERMOSPHERE
 Below the thermosphere, gases made of different  Much of the X-ray and UV radiation from the Sun is
types of atoms and molecules are thoroughly mixed absorbed in the thermosphere. When the Sun is very
together by turbulence in the atmosphere. Air in the active and emitting more high energy radiation, the
lower atmosphere is mainly composed of the familiar thermosphere gets hotter and expands or "puffs up".
blend of about 80% nitrogen molecules (N2) and Because of this, the height of the top of the
thermosphere (the thermopause) varies. The
about 20% oxygen molecules (O2). In the
thermopause is found at an altitude between 500 km and
thermosphere and above, gas particles collide so 1,000 km or higher. Since many satellites orbit within
infrequently that the gases become somewhat the thermosphere, changes in the density of (the very,
separated based on the types of chemical elements very thin) air at orbital altitudes brought on by heating
they contain. Energetic ultraviolet and X-ray photons and expansion of the thermosphere generates a drag
from the Sun also break apart molecules in the force on satellites. Engineers must take this varying drag
thermosphere. In the upper thermosphere, atomic into account when calculating orbits, and satellites
oxygen (O), atomic nitrogen (N), and helium (He) occasionally need to be boosted higher to offset the
are the main components of air. effects of the drag force.
THERMOSPHERE

 High-energy solar photons also tear electrons away from

gas particles in the thermosphere, creating electrically-
charged ions of atoms and molecules. Earth's ionosphere,  Finally, the aurora (the Southern and Northern
composed of several regions of such ionized particles in Lights) primarily occur in the thermosphere.
the atmosphere, overlaps with and shares the same space
Charged particles (electrons, protons, and other
with the electrically neutral thermosphere.
ions) from space collide with atoms and
 Like the oceans, Earth's atmosphere has waves and tides molecules in the thermosphere at high latitudes,
within it. These waves and tides help move energy
exciting them into higher energy states. Those
around within the atmosphere, including the
thermosphere. Winds and the overall circulation in the atoms and molecules shed this excess energy by
thermosphere are largely driven by these tides and emitting photons of light, which we see as
waves. Moving ions, dragged along by collisions with colorful auroral displays.
the electrically neutral gases, produce powerful electrical
currents in some parts of the thermosphere.
IONOSPHERE
 Parts of the ionosphere overlap with
Earth’s magnetosphere. That’s the area around
 The active, changing layer Earth where charged particles feel Earth’s
 An interesting layer called magnetic field.
the ionosphere overlaps the mesosphere,  In the ionosphere, charged particles are affected
thermosphere, and exosphere. It’s a very active by the magnetic fields of both Earth and the sun.
part of the atmosphere, and it grows and shrinks This is where auroras happen. Those are the
depending on the energy it absorbs from the sun. bright, beautiful bands of light that you
Its name comes from the fact that gases in these sometimes see near Earth’s poles. They’re
layers are excited by solar radiation to caused by high-energy particles from the sun
form “ions,” which have an electrical charge. interacting with the atoms in this layer of our
atmosphere.
IONOSPHERE
 High-energy X-rays and ultraviolet (UV) "light"  There are three main regions of the ionosphere,
from the Sun are constantly colliding with gas called the D layer, the E layer, and the F layer. These
molecules and atoms in Earth's upper regions do not have sharp boundaries, and the
atmosphere. Some of these collisions knock altitudes at which they occur vary during the course
electrons free from the atoms and molecules, of a day and from season to season. The D region is
the lowest, starting about 60 or 70 km (37 or 43
creating electrically charged ions (atoms or
miles) above the ground and extending upward to
molecules with missing electrons) and free
about 90 km (56 miles). Next higher is the E region,
electrons. These electrically charged ions and starting at about 90 or 100 km (56 or 62 miles) up
electrons move and behave differently than and extending to 120 or 150 km (75 or 93 miles).
normal, electrically neutral atoms and molecules. The uppermost part of the ionosphere, the F region,
Regions with higher concentrations of ions and starts about 150 km (93 miles) and extends far
free electrons occur at several different altitudes upward, sometimes as high as 500 km (311 miles)
and are known, as a group, as the ionosphere. above the surface of our home planet.
IONOSPHERE
 The height, fraction of ionized particles, and even the
existence of the different regions of the ionosphere varies
over time. The ionosphere is very different in the daytime
 The regions of the ionosphere are not versus night. During the day, X-rays an UV light from the
considered separate layers, such as the Sun continuously provides the energy that knocks electrons
more familiar troposphere and free from atoms and molecules, producing a continuous
stratosphere. Instead, they are ionized supply of ions and free electrons. At the same time, some of
the ions and electrons collide and re-combine to form
regions embedded within the standard
normal, electrically neutral atoms and molecules. During the
atmospheric layers. The D region day, more ions are created than are destroyed, so the number
usually forms in the upper part of the of ions in the three regions increases. At night, the
mesosphere, while the E region typically recombination process takes over in the absence of sunlight,
appears in the lower thermosphere and and the number of ions drops. Over the course of most
the F region is found in the upper nights, the D region disappears entirely and the E region
reaches of the thermosphere. weakens as the number of ions in that layer plummets. Each
morning, as solar X-rays and UV light return, the D and E
regions are repopulated with ions. The highest altitude F
region sticks around throughout the night, but generally splits
into an upper F2 layer and a lower F1 layer during the day.
IONOSPHERE
 The ionosphere regions can absorb or dampen radio
 Before communication via satellites became common, signals, or they can bend radio waves, as well as
the operators of radio communication systems often reflecting the signals as described above. The
used the ionosphere to extend the range of their specific behavior depends on both the frequency of
transmissions. Radio waves generally travel in straight the radio signal as well as the characteristics of the
lines, so unless a tall transmission tower can "see" the
ionosphere region involved. Since Global
top of a receiver tower, the curvature of the Earth limits
Positioning System (GPS) satellites use radio
the range of radio transmissions to stations that are not
over the horizon. However, some frequencies of radio
signals to determine locations, the accuracy of GPS
waves bounce or reflect off of the electrically charged can be severely reduced when those signals bend as
particles in certain ionosphere layers. Pre-satellite radio they pass through ionosphere regions. Similarly,
communications often took advantage of this some radio communications can be disrupted if the
phenomenon, bouncing radio waves off of the "sky" to frequency used is one that an ionosphere layer
extend the range of the signals. Radio operators had to dampens or absorbs entirely, resulting in a
account for the constant changes in the ionosphere, weakened signal or even total loss of
particularly the shifts or disappearance of the layers communications. Scientists constantly measure and
between day and night, to effectively take advantage of produce computer models of the ever-changing
these mirror-like reflections of radio waves. ionosphere so that people in charge of radio
communications can anticipate disruptions.
 IONOSPHERE
 Scientists use radio waves in various ways to probe and
monitor the otherwise invisible ionosphere. Various radio  Seasonal changes in the chemistry of the atmosphere
antennas and radar systems, on the ground and on also play a role, influencing the rate of recombination
satellites, are used to monitor the constantly evolving events which remove ions from the atmosphere. Longer
ionosphere. Radio antennas "listen" for radio signals term, the 11-year sunspot cycle has a strong influence
generated by the ionosphere itself, radar systems bounce on the upper reaches of the atmosphere, including the
signals of the different layers, and pairs of transmitters ionosphere. The brightness of the Sun, in visible light
and receivers shoot signals through the ionosphere to wavelengths that we can see, varies by less than 1/10th
determine how much those signals are dampened or of one percent between the high point and the low point
redirected. of the sunspot cycle. However, the X-ray and UV output
of the Sun varies much more throughout the solar cycle,
 Along with the daily fluctuations in the ionosphere, there fluctuating by a factor of 10 or more. Since these X-rays
are also seasonal and longer-term variations in this and UV radiation control the rate of ion formation that
complex set of regions. Different latitudes warm and cool produces the ionosphere, large variations in these types
with the seasons as the intensity of sunlight varies from of radiation lead to big changes in the ion densities in
place to place due to the tilt of Earth's axis. Similarly, the the ionosphere regions. Also, large geomagnetic storms
ionosphere varies seasonally as the location of the peak triggered by solar flares and coronal mass ejections
intensity of solar X-rays and UV light, which drive the from the Sun can create severe temporary disruptions in
rate of formation of ions, moves around on the globe. the ionosphere.
EXOSPHERE
 The outermost layer
 The exosphere is the very edge of our
 The exosphere is the outermost layer of our atmosphere. This layer separates the rest of the
atmosphere. “Exo”means outside and is the atmosphere from outer space. It’s about 6,200
same prefix used to describe insects like miles (10,000 kilometers) thick. That’s almost as
grasshoppers that have a hard shell or wide as Earth itself. The exosphere is really,
“exoskeleton” on the outside of their body. really big. That means that to get to outer space,
 The exosphere is the uppermost you have to be really far from Earth.
region of Earth's atmosphere as it gradually  The exosphere has gases like hydrogen and
fades into the vacuum of space. Air in the helium, but they are very spread out. There is a
exosphere is extremely thin - in many ways it is lot of empty space in between. There is no air to
almost the same as the airless void of outer breathe, and it’s very cold.
space.
EXOSPHERE
 Not all scientists agree that the exosphere is really a part
 The layer directly below the exosphere is the of the atmosphere. Some scientists consider the
thermosphere; the boundary between the two is thermosphere the uppermost part of Earth's atmosphere,
called the thermopause. The bottom of the exosphere and think that the exosphere is really just part of space.
However, other scientists do consider the exosphere part
is sometimes also referred to as the exobase. The
of our planet's atmosphere.
altitude of the lower boundary of the exosphere
varies. When the Sun is active around the peak of  Since the exosphere gradually fades into outer space, there
the sunspot cycle, X-rays and ultraviolet radiation is no clear upper boundary of this layer. One definition of
from the Sun heat and "puff up" the thermosphere - the outermost limit of the exosphere places the uppermost
raising the altitude of the thermopause to heights edge of Earth's atmosphere around 190,000 km (120,000
around 1,000 km (620 miles) above Earth's surface. miles), about halfway to the Moon. At this distance,
When the Sun is less active during the low point of radiation pressure from sunlight exerts more force on
the sunspot cycle, solar radiation is less intense and hydrogen atoms than does the pull of Earth's gravity. A
faint glow of ultraviolet radiation scattered by hydrogen
the thermopause recedes to within about 500 km
atoms in the uppermost atmosphere has been detected at
(310 miles) of Earth's surface.
heights of 100,000 km (62,000 miles) by satellites. This
region of UV glow is called the geocorona.
EXOSPHERE
 Below the exosphere, molecules and atoms of  Although the exosphere is technically part of Earth's
atmospheric gases constantly collide with each other. atmosphere, in many ways it is part of outer space. Many
However, air in the exosphere is so thin that such satellites, including the International Space Station (ISS),
collisions are very rare. Gas atoms and molecules in the orbit within the exosphere or below. For example, the
exosphere move along "ballistic trajectories", average altitude of the ISS is about 330 km (205 miles),
reminiscent of the arcing flight of a thrown ball (or shot placing it in the thermosphere below the exosphere!
cannonball!) as it gradually curves back towards Earth Although the atmosphere is very, very thin in the
under the pull of gravity. Most gas particles in the thermosphere and exosphere, there is still enough air to
exosphere zoom along curved paths without ever hitting cause a slight amount of drag force on satellites that orbit
another atom or molecule, eventually arcing back down within these layers. This drag force gradually slows the
spacecraft in their orbits, so that they eventually would fall
into the lower atmosphere due to the pull of gravity.
out of orbit and burn up as they re-entered the atmosphere
However, some of the faster-moving particles don't
unless something is done to boost them back upwards. The
return to Earth - they fly off into space instead! A small
ISS loses about 2 km (1.2 miles) in altitude each month to
portion of our atmosphere "leaks" away into space each
such "orbital decay", and must periodically be given an
year in this way. upward boost by rocket engines to keep it in orbit.
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
 Earth is able to support a wide variety of living beings because of its diverse
regional climates, which range from extreme cold at the poles to tropical heat at the
Equator. Regional climate is often described as the average weather in a place over
more than 30 years. A region's climate is often described, for example, as sunny,
windy, dry, or humid. These can also describe the weather in a certain place, but
while the weather can change in just a few hours, climate changes over a longer
span of time.
 Earth's global climate is an average of regional climates. The global climate has
cooled and warmed throughout history. Today, we are seeing unusually rapid
warming. The scientific consensus is that greenhouse gases, which are increasing
because of human activities, are trapping heat in the atmosphere.
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