AC THEORY

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
PRINCIPLES I
 AC Waveforms
• Defined as a waveform that varies in both magnitude and
direction in more or less an even manner with respect to time
making it a “Bi-directional” waveform.
• An AC function can represent either a power source or a signal
source with the shape of an AC waveform generally following
that of a mathematical sinusoid as defined by:
A(t) = Amax x sin(2πƒt).
• An AC waveform is constantly changing its polarity every half
cycle alternating between a positive maximum value and a
negative maximum value respectively with regards to time .
• a common example of this being the domestic mains voltage
supply we use in our homes.
 AC Waveform Characteristics
• The Period, (T) is the length of time in seconds that the
waveform takes to repeat itself from start to finish.
• This can also be called the Periodic Time of the waveform
for sine waves, or the Pulse Width for square waves.
• The Frequency, (ƒ) is the number of times the waveform
repeats itself within a one second time period.
• Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period,
( ƒ = 1/T ) with the unit of frequency being the Hertz, (Hz).
• The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or intensity of the
signal waveform measured in volts or amps.
Relationship Between Frequency , f and
Periodic Time , T
 Solving Problems
1. Determine the periodic time for frequencies of
(a) 50 Hz and (b) 20 kHz.
a(20ms)
b(50μs)
2. Determine the frequencies for periodic times
of (a) 4 ms (b) 4 μs.
a(250Hz) b(0.25Mhz)
3. An alternating current completes 5 cycles in 8
ms. What is its frequency? (625Hz)
A.C Sinusoid
AC values
 A.C. values
• Instantaneous values are the values of the
alternating quantities at any instant of time. They are
represented by small letters, i, v, e, etc.,
• The largest value reached in a half cycle is called the
peak value or the maximum value or the amplitude
of the waveform(represented by Vm, Im, Em, etc).
• A peak-to-peak value of e.m.f. is the difference
between the maximum and minimum values in a
cycle.
 Average values
• The average or mean value of a symmetrical
alternating quantity is the average value measured
over a half cycle, (since over a complete cycle the
average value is zero).
• Average value = area under the curve
length of base
• For a sine wave:
Average value = 0.637 × maximum value
(i.e. 2/π × maximum value)
(using an approximate method )
 R.m.s. values
• The effective value of an alternating current is that
current which will produce the same heating effect as an
equivalent direct current is called the Root Mean Square
value.
• Whenever an alternating quantity is given, it is assumed to
be the r.m.s value.
• For example, the domestic mains supply in Kenya is 240V
and is assumed to mean ‘240V r.m.s’.
• For a sine wave:
rms value = 0.707 × maximum value
(i.e.1 /√2 × maximum value)
 Peak and Form Factors
• The values of form and peak factors gives an
indication of the shape of waveforms.
• Form factor = r.m.s. value
average value
• For a pure sine wave, form factor=1.11
• Peak factor = maximum value
r.m.s. value
• For a pure sine wave, peak factor=1.41.
 Solving Problems-1
• Calculate the r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal current
of maximum value 20A.
(14.14A)
• Determine the peak and mean values for a
240V mains supply. (216.3v)

• A supply voltage has a mean value of 150V.

Determine its maximum value and its r.m.s.
value. (166.5V)
 Solving Problems-2
• A sinusoidal voltage has a maximum value of
120V. Calculate its r.m.s. and average values.
[84.8V,
76.4V]
 Generation of AC Voltages and Currents
• Alternating Voltages may be generated by rotating a coil in a
magnetic field. Fig (a)
• Can also be generated by rotating a magnetic field within a
stationary coil. Fig (b)
• The value of the voltages generated depends on:
– Number of turns in the coil
– Strength of the field
– Speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates
Basic Single Coil AC Generator
Sinusoidal Waveform Construction
 Principle of operation of AC Generators

• In positions (a), (e) and (i) the conductors of the loop are effectively moving
along the magnetic field, no flux is cut and hence no e.m.f. is induced.
• In position (c) maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is induced.
• In position (g), maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is again induced
• However, using Fleming’s right-hand rule, the induced e.m.f. is in the opposite
direction to that in position (c) and is thus shown as −E. In positions (b), (d), (f)
and (h) some flux is cut and hence some e.m.f. is induced.
 Radians
• Defined mathematically as a quadrant of a circle
where the distance subtended on the
circumference equals the radius (r) of the circle.
• Since the circumference of a circle is equal to
2π x radius, there must be 2π radians around a
360o circle, so 1 radian = 360o/2π = 57.3o.
Angular Velocity
 Equation of Alternating Voltages and
Currents
0A represents a vector that is free to rotate anticlockwise
about 0 at an angular velocity of ω rad/s.

After time t seconds the vector 0A has turned through an angle

ωt.
sin ωt = BC i.e. BC = 0B sin ωt
0B
 Equation of Alternating Voltages and
Currents….
• A sine curve may not always start at 0◦. To show this a periodic
function is represented by y=sin(ωt ±φ),where φ is the phase (or
angle) difference compared with y= sin ωt.
• Given the general sinusoidal voltage,
v=Vm sin(ωt ± φ), then
(i) Amplitude or maximum value=Vm
(ii) Peak to peak value=2Vm
(iii) Angular velocity=ω rad/s
(iv) Periodic time, T =2π/ω seconds
(v) Frequency, f =ω/2π Hz (since ω=2πf )
(vi) φ=angle of lag or lead (compared with v=V m sin ωt)
 Solving Problems - 1
• An alternating voltage is given by v=282.8 sin
314 t volts. Find:
(a) the r.m.s. voltage,
(b) the frequency and
(c) the instantaneous value of voltage when
t =4 ms.
 Solving Problems-2
• An alternating voltage is given by :
v=75 sin(200πt −0.25) volts. Find
(a) The amplitude,
(b) The peak-to-peak value,
(c) The r.m.s. value,
(d) The periodic time,
(e) The frequency, and
(f) The phase angle (in degrees and minutes )relative
to 75 sin 200πt.
 Solving Problems -3
• An alternating voltage, v, has a periodic time
of 0.01 s and a peak value of 40V. When time t
is zero, v=−20V. Express the instantaneous
voltage in the form v=Vm sin(ωt ±φ).
 Combination of Waveforms
• The resultant of the addition (or subtraction)
of two sinusoidal quantities may be
determined in one of two ways:
• by plotting the periodic functions graphically
• by resolution of phasors (drawing or
calculation)
 Solving Problems-1
• The instantaneous values of two alternating
currents are given by i1 =20 sin ωt amperes
and i2 =10 sin(ωt +π/3) amperes. By plotting i1
and i2 on the same axes, using the same scale,
over one cycle, and adding ordinates at
intervals, obtain a sinusoidal expression for
i1 +i2.
Solution –Problem -1( plotting periodic
functions graphically )
Solution Problem 1 –By drawing Phasor

• The relative positions of i1 and i2 at time t =0 are

shown as phasor below.
• The phasor diagram below shows the resultant
iR, and iR is measured as 26A and angle φ as 19◦
or 0.33 rads leading i1.
 Solution –Problem 1 (by calculation )

• i2R =202 +102 −2(20)(10)(cos 120◦)

from which iR =26.46A
• By the sine rule: 10 = 26.46
sin φ sin 120◦
• from which φ=19.10◦ (i.e. 0.333 rads)
• Hence, by calculation , iR =26.46 sin(ωt+0.333)A
 Solving Problem -2
• Two alternating voltages are given by
v1 =120 sin ωt volts and v2 =200 sin(ωt −π/4)
volts. Obtain sinusoidal expressions for v1 −v2
(a) by plotting waveforms, and
(b) (b) by resolution of phasors.
(vR =v1 −v2 =143 sin (ωt+1.73)
volts)
 Passive Elements in AC circuits
• Purely resistive a.c. circuits
• Purely inductive a.c. circuits
• Purely capacitive a.c. circuits
 Purely resistive a.c. circuits

• In a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the current IR

and applied voltage VR are in phase.
 Purely inductive a.c. circuits

• In a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the current IL

lags the applied voltage VL by 90◦ (i.e. π/2 rads ).
 Purely capacitive a.c. circuits

• In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the current IC

leads the applied voltage VC by 90◦ (i.e. π/2
rads )
 Inductive Reactance ,XL
• In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the flow of
alternating current is called the inductive reactance, XL
• XL = VL = 2πfL
IL
• where f is the supply frequency, in hertz, and L is the
inductance, in Henry's.
• XL is proportional to f
 Capacitive Reactance ,Xc
• In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the flow of
alternating current is called the capacitive reactance, XC
• XC = VC = 1
IC 2πfC
• where C is the capacitance in farads.
• XC varies with frequency f as shown
 Solving Problems - 1
(a) Calculate the reactance of a coil of
inductance 0.32H when it is connected to a
50 Hz supply. (100.5Ω )

(b) A coil has a reactance of 124 Ω in a circuit

with a supply of frequency 5 kHz. Determine
the inductance of the coil. (3.95mH )
 Solving Problems-2
• A coil has an inductance of 40mH and
negligible resistance. Calculate its inductive
reactance and the resulting current if
connected to
(a) a 240V, 50 Hz supply, and (19.09A)
(b) a 100V, 1 kHz supply. (0.398A)
 Solving Problems -3
• Determine the capacitive reactance of a
capacitor of 10 μF when connected to a circuit
of frequency
(a) 50 Hz (318.3Ω)
(b) 20 kHz. (0.796 Ω)
 R–L series a.c. circuit
• In an a.c. circuit containing inductance L and resistance R,
the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR and VL .
• thus the current I lags the applied voltage V by an angle
lying between 0◦ and 90◦ (depending on the values of VR
and VL), shown as angle φ.
 R-L series ac circuit
• From the phasor diagram , the ‘voltage triangle’ is derived.
• For the R–L circuit: V = V2R + V2L
(by Pythagoras’ theorem)
and
tan φ = VL (by trigonometric ratios)
VR
• In an a.c. circuit, the ratio applied voltage V to current
I is called the impedance, Z, i.e. Z = V
I
• For the R–L circuit: Z = R2 + X2L
tan φ = XL
R
sin φ = XL
Z
and cos φ = R
Z
 Solving Problems
• In a series R–L circuit the p.d. across the
resistance R is 12V and the p.d. across the
inductance L is 5V. Find the supply voltage and
the phase angle between current and voltage.
(13v)
(22.62
lagging)
 Solving Problems
• A coil has a resistance of 4 and an inductance of 9.55
mH. Calculate (a) the reactance, (b) the impedance,
and (c) the current taken from a 240V, 50 Hz supply.
• Determine also the phase angle between the supply
voltage and current.
(3Ω)
(5Ω )
(48A)
(36.87
lagging)
 R–C series a.c. circuit
• In an a.c. series circuit containing capacitance C and
resistance R, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of
VR and VC (see Fig. 15.10) and thus the current I leads
the applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0◦ and
90◦ (depending on the values of VR and VC), shown as
angle α.
 R–C series a.c. circuit
• For the R–C circuit: V = V2R + V2C (by Pythagoras’ theorem)
and tan α = VC (by trigonometric ratios)
VR
• the ratio of applied voltage V to current I is called the impedance Z, i.e. Z =V/I
• If each side of the voltage triangle in Fig. 15.10 is divided by current I then
the ‘impedance triangle’ is derived.
• For the R–C circuit: Z= R2+X2C
tan α = XC
R
sin α = XC
Z
and cos α = R
Z
 Questions
• A resistor of 25 is connected in series with a
capacitor of 45 μF. Calculate
(a) the impedance, and
(b) the current taken from a 240V,50 Hz supply.
(c) Find also the phase angle between the supply
voltage and the current.
(75.03Ω)
(3.20A)
(70.54 )
 R–L–C series a.c. circuit
• In an a.c. series circuit containing resistance R,
inductance ,L and capacitance C, the applied
voltage V is the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC
• VL and VC are anti-phase, i.e. displaced by 180◦,
and there are three phasor diagrams possible —
each depending on the relative values of VL and
VC.
R–L–C series a.c. circuit
 R–L–C series a.c. circuit..
• When XL >XC ,
Z = R2 + (XL − XC)2
and tan φ = XL − XC
R
• When XC >XL ,
Z = R2 + (XC − XL)2
and tan α = XC − XL
R
• When XL =XC , the applied voltage V and the current I are in
phase. This effect is called series resonance .
 Solving Problems -1
• A coil of resistance 5 and inductance 120mH in
series with a 100 μF capacitor, is connected to
a 300V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the current flowing,
(b) the phase difference between the supply
voltage and current,
(c) the voltage across the coil and
(d) the voltage across the capacitor.
 Series connected impedances
• For series-connected impedances the total circuit
impedance can be represented as a single L–C–R circuit
by combining all values of resistance together, all values
of inductance together and all values of capacitance
together.
 Solving Problems-2
• The following three impedances are connected in
series across a 40V, 20 kHz supply:
(i) a resistance of 8,
(ii) a coil of inductance 130 μH and 5 resistance, and
(iii) a 10 resistor in series with a 0.25 μF capacitor.
Calculate
(a) the circuit current,
(b) the circuit phase angle and
(c) the voltage drop across each impedance.