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Physiology Chapter 2 Part 1

The document summarizes key aspects of cell structure and function from a physiology textbook chapter. It describes the organization of cells, including their water, ion, protein, lipid, and carbohydrate components. It then discusses the physical structures of cells, including organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, and membranes. It focuses on the structure and function of the cell membrane, describing its lipid bilayer composition and role in regulating substance exchange.

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22 views

Physiology Chapter 2 Part 1

The document summarizes key aspects of cell structure and function from a physiology textbook chapter. It describes the organization of cells, including their water, ion, protein, lipid, and carbohydrate components. It then discusses the physical structures of cells, including organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, and membranes. It focuses on the structure and function of the cell membrane, describing its lipid bilayer composition and role in regulating substance exchange.

Uploaded by

prabokrishna02
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Physiology Chapter 2-

“The Cell and Its Functions”


Presented By:
Dr. Syed Muhammad Shabbir Ali (PT)
DPT, MSPT* (Gold Medalist)
Trainee Medical Officer (KMU)
Remote Research Assistant (University Of Shiefield,UK)
Contents
• At the end of this lecture students should be able to:
Introduction
ORGANIZATION OF THE CELL
 Water
 Ions
 Proteins
 Lipids
 Carbohydrates
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
 MEMBRANOUS STRUCTURES OF THE CELL
Cell Membrane
Introduction
• Human body consists of 100 trillion living cells that can survive for months or years
with proper nutrients
• Cells serve as building blocks of the body and provide structure for tissues and
organs
• Cells ingest nutrients and convert them to energy while performing specialized
functions
• Hereditary code contained in cells control substances synthesized and permit cell
replication
• Understanding the organization and function of cells is essential to understanding
the function of organs and other structures in the body.
ORGANIZATION OF THE CELL

• Typical cell has nucleus and cytoplasm


• Nucleus separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane
• Cytoplasm separated from surrounding fluids by cell membrane
• Protoplasm is different substances that make up the cell
• Protoplasm contains water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates
• Water is a major component
• Electrolytes maintain cell function
• Proteins essential for structure and function
• Lipids involved in membrane structure and signaling
• Carbohydrates provide energy.
Water

• Water is the principal fluid medium of the cell


• Water comprises 70 to 85 percent of most cells, except for fat
cells
• Many cellular chemicals are dissolved in water
• Some chemicals are suspended in water as solid particulates
• Chemical reactions occur among dissolved chemicals or at surfaces
of suspended particles or membranes.
IONS

• Important ions in the cell include potassium, magnesium, phosphate,


sulfate, bicarbonate, sodium, chloride, and calcium
• These ions are discussed in more detail in Chapter 4, which considers
the interrelations between intracellular and extracellular fluids
• Ions provide inorganic chemicals for cellular reactions
• Ions are necessary for operation of some cellular control mechanisms
• Ions acting at cell membrane are required for transmission of
electrochemical impulses in nerve and muscle fibers.
Proteins

• After water, proteins are the most abundant substances in most cells
• Proteins normally constitute 10 to 20 percent of cell mass
• Proteins can be divided into two types: structural and functional
• Structural proteins are present in the cell mainly in the form of long filaments that are
polymers of many individual protein molecules
• A prominent use of intracellular filaments is to form microtubules that provide the
“cytoskeletons” of cellular organelles
• Fibrillar proteins are found outside the cell, especially in the collagen and elastin fibers of
connective tissue and blood vessel walls, tendons and ligaments.
• Functional proteins are composed of combinations of a few molecules in tubular-globular form
• Functional proteins are mainly the enzymes of the cell and are often mobile in the cell fluid
• Enzymes come into direct contact with other substances in the cell fluid and catalyze specific
intracellular chemical reactions.
LIPIDS

• Lipids are a type of substance that are soluble in fat solvents


• Phospholipids and cholesterol are important lipids in the cell
• They constitute only about 2% of the total cell mass
• Phospholipids and cholesterol are mainly insoluble in water
• They are used to form the cell membrane and intracellular membrane
barriers
• These membrane barriers separate the different cell compartments
LIPIDS (Cont)

• Triglycerides, also called neutral fat, are present in some cells


• In fat cells, triglycerides can account for as much as 95% of the
cell mass
• Triglycerides are the body's main storehouse of energy-giving
nutrients
• They can be used to provide energy wherever in the body it is
needed
Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates play a minor structural role in the cell, but are


essential for cellular nutrition.
• Most human cells contain only 1% carbohydrate, but muscle cells may
contain up to 3%, and liver cells up to 6%.
• Glucose, a form of carbohydrate, is always present in the
extracellular fluid surrounding the cell.
• A small amount of carbohydrate is stored in the cells in the form of
glycogen.
• Glycogen is an insoluble polymer of glucose that can be
depolymerized and rapidly used to provide energy to the cells.
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE CELL

• The cell contains intracellular organelles that are highly organized physical
structures.
• These organelles are as important as the cell's chemical constituents for its
function.
• One of the most important organelles is mitochondria, without which more
than 95% of the cell's energy release from nutrients would cease immediately.
• Other important organelles and structures include ribosomes, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton, and
nucleus.
• Figure 2-2 shows the most important organelles and structures of the cell.
MEMBRANOUS STRUCTURES OF THE CELL

• Most organelles of the cell are covered by membranes composed of lipids and
proteins.
• Membranes include the cell membrane, nuclear membrane, endoplasmic
reticulum membrane, and membranes of mitochondria, lysosomes, and Golgi
apparatus.
• The lipids in the membranes provide a barrier that impedes the movement of
water and water-soluble substances.
• Protein molecules in the membrane often penetrate all the way through the
membrane, providing specialized pathways for specific substance passage
through the membrane.
• Many other membrane proteins are enzymes that catalyze various chemical
reactions.
Cell Membrane

• The cell membrane is a thin, pliable, and elastic structure that


envelops the cell.
• It is composed primarily of proteins and lipids.
• The composition of the cell membrane is approximately 55% proteins,
25% phospholipids, 13% cholesterol, 4% other lipids, and 3%
carbohydrates.
• The cell membrane plays a vital role in regulating the exchange of
substances between the cell and its environment.
• The membrane's lipids provide a barrier that impedes the movement of
water and water-soluble substances, but protein molecules penetrate
through the membrane.
Cell Membrane Lipid Barrier Impedes
Penetration by Water-Soluble Substances
• The cell membrane is a thin, pliable, elastic structure composed almost entirely of proteins
and lipids.
• The basic structure of the cell membrane is a lipid bilayer, which is a thin, double-layered film
of lipids that is continuous over the entire cell surface.
• The lipid bilayer is composed of three main types of lipids: phospholipids, sphingolipids, and
cholesterol.
• Phospholipids are the most abundant of the cell membrane lipids and have a hydrophilic
phosphate end and a hydrophobic fatty acid portion.
• The hydrophobic portions of the phospholipid molecules are repelled by water but are
mutually attracted to one another, causing them to attach to one another in the middle of the
membrane.
• The hydrophilic phosphate portions constitute the two surfaces of the complete cell
membrane, in contact with intracellular water on the inside of the membrane and
extracellular water on the outside surface.
Cell Membrane Lipid Barrier Impedes
Penetration by Water-Soluble Substances

• The lipid layer in the middle of the membrane is impermeable to the usual water-
soluble substances, such as ions, glucose, and urea, but fat-soluble substances, such
as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and alcohol, can penetrate this portion of the membrane
with ease.
• Sphingolipids, derived from the amino alcohol sphingosine, are also present in small
amounts in the cell membranes, especially nerve cells.
• Sphingolipids in cell membranes are thought to serve several functions, including
protection from harmful environmental factors, signal transmission, and as adhesion
sites for extracellular proteins.
• Cholesterol molecules in the membrane are also lipids because their steroid nuclei
are highly fat-soluble.
• The lipid barrier of the cell membrane impedes penetration by water-soluble
substances.
Integral and Peripheral Cell Membrane
Proteins

• There are two types of cell membrane proteins:


• Integral proteins that protrude all the way through the membrane
AND
• Peripheral proteins that are attached only to one surface of the
membrane and do not penetrate all the way through.
References

1. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al: Molecular Biology of the Cell, 6th ed. New York: Garland Science, 2007.
2. Bohdanowicz M, Grinstein S: Role of phospholipids in endocytosis, phagocytosis, and macropinocytosis. Physiol Rev 93:69, 2013.
3. Boya P, Reggiori F, Codogno P: Emerging regulation and functions of autophagy. Nat Cell Biol 15:713, 2013.
4. Brandizzi F, Barlowe C: Organization of the ER-Golgi interface for membrane traffic control. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 14:382, 2013.
5. Chen S, Novick P, Ferro-Novick S: ER structure and function. Curr Opin Cell Biol 25:428, 2013.
6. Drummond IA: Cilia functions in development. Curr Opin Cell Biol 24:24, 2012.
7. Edidin E: Lipids on the frontier: a century of cell-membrane bilayers. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 4: 414, 2003.
8. Guerriero CJ, Brodsky JL: The delicate balance between secreted protein folding and endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation in human physiology.
Physiol Rev 92:537, 2012.

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