Computer Communication

Network

TIRUPATI M. GOSKULA
ETC DEPARTMENT
ANJUMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

1
 Computer Communication Network

Text Books:
1. Behrouz A. Forouzan, “Data Communications
and Networking”
2. Andrew Tenenbaum, “Computer Networks”
3. Kurose & Ross, “Computer Networking- A top
Down Approach featuring the Internet”
4. William Stallings, “computer Networks and
Cryptography”
2
 Objectives
1. To explain the basic concept of computer
communication network.
2. To explain the computer network layer.
3. To explain IP addressing scheme.
4. To explain network process.
5. To study Hardware aspect of network
communication.
6. To make selection of IEEE LAN standards.
7. To explain network security & administration.
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 Outcome
By the end of course, the students shall be able to:
1. Understand the requirement of theoretical &
practical aspect of computer network.
2. Understand the network traffic in computer
network.
3. Describe various protocols used in network.
4. Describe the concept of computer network security.
5. Understand the different wired & wireless LAN
standards & Routers.

4
 Introduction to Computer
Networks

Unit I
Uses of computer Network, Network Software-
design Issues for layers, Service primitives and
relationship of services to Protocols, Reference
models-OSI & TCP/IP, network architectures
introduction, Example of networks-X.25, Frame
Relay & ATM, Protocols and Standards.
5
 Computer Networks

• A computer network is an interconnected

collection of autonomous computers.
– The goals of a computer network include:
• Sharing: programs (O.S., applications), data,
equipment (printers, disks).
• High reliability: users are more immune from
hardware/software failure.
• Less cost: It is easy to increase the capacity by
adding new machines.
• Communications medium: Users have access to 6
Computer Networks

7
 Computer Networks
Uses of Computer Networks
– Business Application
• Resource Sharing: programs (O.S., applications), equipment
(printers, disks).
• Information Sharing: data (Client-server model)
– Home Application
• Access to remote information (www, news paper, business,
cooking, health, history, etc..)
• Person-to-person communication (text messaging, twitter, etc…)
• Interactive entertainment (Facebook, WhatsApp, hike, etc…)
• Electronic commerce (pay bill, manage bank a/c, online
sale/purchase, etc…)
– Mobile Users
• Mobile computers/note book computers
• PDAs 8
 Network Hardware
• The user machines in a network are called
hosts.
• The hosts are connected by a subnet which
carries messages between hosts.
• The subnet is made up of transmission lines
(trunks, channels, circuits) and switching
elements (computers).
• Computer Networks can be classified by two
dimensions:
– Transmission Technology
– Scale 9
 Network Hardware
There are two types of transmission technology
(subnet design):
• Point-to-Point subnets: Point-to-point links
connect individual pairs of machines. (ex.
Postal Service, mobile).
– Unicasting – one sender and exactly one
receiver
• Broadcast subnets: In this system a message is
broadcast over the network and all machines
have the possibility of receiving the message
(ex. LAN, WAN). 10
 Network Hardware
• Broadcast Sub-networks: These are typically
configured as either a bus or a ring network. They
can be further classified as Static or Dynamic.
• In static broadcast subnet the transmission is
done turn by turn.
– Advantage: No collision of message and hence no
corruption of message
– Limitation: In-sufficient use of network time
• In dynamic broadcast subnet the system allows
any station to transmit at any time the network is
free of traffic.
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 Network Hardware
• Point to Point Networks: The second type of
subnet, the point to point subnet, is mainly
found in Wide Area Networks (WANs).
• If possible, the point to point subnet transmits
directly to the relevant station. If no direct route
is available, it will send the message to a
"switch" which re-transmits the message to the
destination.
• The best known example of this type of network
is the telephone network (Public Switched
Telephone Network or PSTN).
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 Network Hardware
• In Point to point model, nodes either employ
circuit switching or packet switching.
• In circuit switching,
– a dedicated communication path is allocated
between A and B, via a set of intermediate
nodes.
– the data is sent along the path as a
continuous stream of bits.
• In packet switching,
– data is divided into packets which are sent
from A to B via intermediate nodes. 13
Network Hardware

14
 Network Hardware
• An alternative criterion for classifying
networks is by scale. Distance is important
as a classification metric because different
technologies are used at different scales.
– Personal Area Network (meant for one
person)
– Longer range Network – LAN, MAN, WAN
– Internetwork

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 Network Topologies
• Computer networks can be configured in a number
of ways.
• Messages are broken into smaller units called
packets for transmission on a network.
– Bus/Ring configuration: Each packet of
information is sent off around the ring on its own.
– Complete network: In this configuration each
station is connected directly to every other station
on the network.
– Loop: Each packet is transmitted along the line
until it encounters a computer.
– Tree, Intersecting loop and Star configurations are
same as above. 16
Network Topologies

17
 Personal Area Networks (PAN)
• PANs let devices communicate over the
range of a person (ex. Computer and its
peripherals).
• PANs can also be built with other
technologies that communicate over short
ranges, such as RFID, Bluetooth, etc..
• These short range technologies use master-
slave
paradigm.

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Local Area Networks (LAN)

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 Local Area Networks (LAN)
• A LAN is a privately owned network that operates within
and nearby a single building like a home, office or factory.
• LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and
consumer electronics to let them share resources (ex.
printers) and exchange information.
• In another configuration it can be used as wireless LAN
consisting of a radio modem and an antenna (Access Point).
• Typically, wired LANs run at speeds of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps,
have low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and make
very few errors.
• Newer LANs can operate at up to 10 Gbps.
• Various topologies are possible for LAN (bus-based, ring-
based N/W)
• Channel allocation can be Static or dynamic 20
 Metropolitan Area Networks
•
(MAN)
A MAN is a network with a size between a LAN
and a WAN.
• It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
• It is designed for customers who need a high-
speed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and
have endpoints spread over a city or part of city
(ex. Cable tv, high speed internet access WiMax).
• It may be private or public.
• It support data & voice.
• It has one or more cable and does not contain
switching element.
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Metropolitan Area Networks
(MAN)

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 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
• A WAN spans a large geographical area, often a
country or continent.
• It is available in two configurations namely
switched WAN and poit-to-point WAN.
• The switched WAN connects the end systems,
which usually comprise a router
(internetworking connecting device) that
connects to another LAN or WAN (ex. ATM).
• The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased
from a telephone or cable TV provider that
connects a home computer or a small LAN to an
Internet service provider (lSP). 23
Wide Area Networks (WAN)

24
 Internetworks
• A collection of interconnected networks is called
an internetwork or internet.
• Connecting a LAN and a WAN or connecting two
LANs is the usual way to form an internetwork.
• People on one n/w can communicate with people
on different n/w.
• It is widely used to connect universities,
government offices, companies and also private
individuals.
• Applications: Email, News, Remote login, file
transfer, etc…
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 Network Software
• The earlier computer networks were
designed with the hardware as the main
concern and the software as an
afterthought.
• Now-a-days software are of prime
importance and are highly structured.

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Network Software

27
 Protocols and Standards
• A Protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications
• A Protocol defines: what is communicated,
how it is communicated, & when it is
communicated
• There are three elements of a protocol:
– Syntax: The term syntax refers to the
structure or format of the data, meaning
the order in which they are presented.
– Semantics: The word semantics refers to
the meaning of each section of bits. How is 28
 Protocols and Standards
• Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,
government agencies, and other service providers to
ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's
marketplace and in international communication.
• Standards are developed through the cooperation of
standards creation committees, forums, and government
regulatory agencies.
• The various standard creation committees are:
– International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
– International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication
Standards Sector (ITU-T)
– American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
– Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
– Electronic Industries Association (EIA) 29
 Design Issues for Layers
• There are some key design issues occur in
computer networks are present in several
layers
• Addressing
• Error control
• Flow control
• Multiplexing
• Demultiplexing
• Routing
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 Design Issues for Layers
• Addressing: Every layer needs a mechanism to
identify senders and receivers.
• Error Control: Its an important issue because
physical communication circuits are not perfect.
– Many error detecting and error correcting
codes are available.
– Both sending and receiving ends are must
agree to use any one code.
• Flow Control: This property leads to
mechanisms for disassembling, transmitting
and then reassembling messages. 31
 Design Issues for Layers
• Routing: When there are multiple paths
between source and destination, a route must
be chosen.
• Multiplexing & Demultiplexing: These two are
must for improving the n/w system.
• Quality of Service: Most networks must provide
service to applications that want this real-time
delivery at the same time with high throughput.
• Security: The last major design issue is to secure
the network by defending it against different
kinds of threats.
32
 Interfaces and Services
• The function of each layer is to provide
services to the layer above it.
• The active elements in each layer are
called entities.
• The entities in layer n implement a
service used by layer n+1.
• The layer n is called service provider &
layer n+1 is called the service user.
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 Service Primitives
• A Primitive means operation
• A service in computer network consists of a
set of primitives
• The primitives are to be used by a user to
access the service
• The primitives asks the service to do some
action or to report on an action
• The primitives are system calls
• The primitive varies for different services
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Service Primitives

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 THE NEED FOR STANDARDS
• Over the past couple of decades many of
the networks that were built used different
hardware and software implementations, as
a result they were incompatible and it
became difficult for networks using different
specifications to communicate with each
other.
• To address the problem of networks being
incompatible and unable to communicate
with each other, the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) 36
 The OSI Reference
Model

Note that the

OSI model itself
is not a network
architecture
because it does
not specify the
exact services
and protocols to
be used in each
layer. It just tells
what each layer
should do.
37
 The OSI Reference Model
• The OSI Reference Model is composed of seven layers, each
specifying particular network functions.
• Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the
protocol specification.
• Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or
hardware on other computers.
• The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical
—Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the flow of data
from end to end through the network.
• The upper four layers of the OSI model (application,
presentation and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated
more toward services to the applications.
• Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol information
as it moves down the layers before network transit.
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 OSI Group

The OSI model

consists of
seven layer is
further grouped
according to
their function
into three
groups;
• Network
Group
• Transport
Group
• Application 39
The OSI Reference Model

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 The Physical Layer
• This is lowermost layer of the OSI model. It provides
the electrical and mechanical interface to the network
medium (cable).
• This layer consists of simply the wire or media by
which the network signals are conducted. Physical
layer includes hardware (wire, plugs and sockets etc.).
• In other words, this layer represent the physical
aspects of the network such as cable and connectors.
• The basic functions of this layer are handles voltages,
electrical pulses, connectors and switches so that data
can be transmitted from one network device to
another.
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 The Data Link Layer
• The data link layer provides access to the networking
media and physical transmission across the media and
this enables the data to locate its intended destination
on a network.
• The data link layer provides reliable transit of data
across a physical link by using the Media Access Control
(MAC) addresses.
• The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a
hardware or data link address in order for multiple
stations to share the same medium and still uniquely
identify each other.
• Concerned with network topology, network access,
error notification, ordered delivery of frames, and flow
control. 42
 The Network Layer
• This layer establishes the route between the
sending and receiving stations.
• It handles the routing of data (sending in the
right direction to the right destination on
outgoing transmissions and receiving
incoming transmission at the packet). The
layer does routing & forwarding of data.
• The network layer also defines how to
fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.
• This layer uses the Internet protocol (IP). 43
 The Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for constructing stream of
data packets, sending and checking for correct delivery.
• This layer manages the end to end control (for example
determining whether all packets have arrived) and error
checking.
• The transport layer ensures data is successfully sent and
received between two nodes.
• If data is sent incorrectly, this layer has the responsibility to
ask for retransmission of the data.
• Specially it provides a reliable network independent message
interchange service to the application group.
• This layer acts as an interface between the bottom and top
three layers.
• This layer uses of TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) & UDP
44
(User Datagram Protocol).
 The Session Layer
• The session layer defines how to start, control
and end conversations (called sessions) between
applications.
• This includes the control and management of
multiple bi-directional messages using dialogue
control.
• It also synchronizes dialogue between two hosts'
presentation layers and manages their data
exchange.
• The session layer offers provisions for efficient
data transfer.
• This layer uses POP, TCP/IP protocols. 45
 The Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer ensures that the
information that the application layer of one
system sends out is readable by the
application layer of another system.
• If necessary, the presentation layer
translates between multiple data formats by
using a common format.
• Provides encryption and compression of
data.
• In this layer POP, SMTP, FTP protocol are
used. 46
 The Application Layer
• The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to
the user.
• It provides network services to the user’s applications.
• It differs from the other layers in that it does not
provide services to any other OSI layer, but rather,
only to applications outside the OSI model.
• Examples of such applications are spreadsheet
programs, word processing programs, and bank
terminal programs.
• The application layer establishes the availability of
intended communication partners, synchronizes and
establishes agreement on procedures for error
recovery and control of data integrity. 47
 The TCP/IP Reference Model
• A set of protocols allowing communication across
diverse networks
• It is named from two of the most important
protocols in it:
– the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
– the Internet Protocol (IP).
• The TCP/IP protocol suite is the engine for the
Internet and networks worldwide.
• The main design goal of TCP/IP was to build an
interconnection of networks, referred to as an
internetwork, or internet, that provided universal
communication services over heterogeneous
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physical networks.
The TCP/IP Reference Model

49
 Network Interface Layer (Link)
• Responsible for sending and receiving TCP/IP
packets on the network medium
(physical/Data Link)
• Applicable LAN technologies
– Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI (Fiber
Distributed Data Interface) etc.
• Applicable WAN technologies
– X.25 (old), Frame Relay, ATM etc.
• Note that some technologies such as ATM
and FDDI may be used at both the WAN and
the LAN levels 50
 Internet Layer
• Packaging
• Addressing
• Routing
• IP
– A connectionless unreliable protocol that is part of
the TCP/IP protocol suite
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
– Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
– Diagnostics and error reporting
• IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)
– Management of group multicast 51
 Internet Layer
• The internetwork layer, also called the internet
layer or the network layer, provides the “virtual
network” image of an internet (this layer
shields the higher levels from the physical
network architecture below it).
• Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important
protocol in this layer. It is a connectionless
protocol that does not assume reliability from
lower layers.
• IP does not provide reliability, flow control, or
error recovery. These functions must be
provided at a higher level. 52
 Transport Layer
• Sequencing and transmission of packets
• Acknowledgment of receipts
• Recovery of packets
• Flow control
• In essence, it engages in host-to-host transportation of
data packets and the delivery of them to the application
layer.
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): provides connection-
oriented reliable data delivery, duplicate data
suppression, congestion control, and flow control.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol): provides connectionless,
unreliable, best-effort service. UDP is used by applications
that need a fast transport mechanism and can tolerate
53
the loss of some data.
 Application Layer
• The application layer is provided by the program
that uses TCP/IP for communication.
• The interface between the application and transport
layers is defined by port numbers and sockets.
• This layer contains all the high level protocols:
virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP) and
electronic mail (SMTP).
• The virtual terminal protocol allows a user on one
machine to log into a distant machine and work
there.
• The file transfer protocol provides a way to more
data efficiency from one machine to other. 54
 Comparison of OSI & TCP/IP
•
Models
The OSI & TCP/IP models are more or less similar.
The layer functionality is similar.
• The two models can be distinguished based on
concepts:
– Service; Interfaces; Protocols
• OSI: Each layer in OSI performs some service for
the layer above it. A layer’s interface tells the
processes above it how to access it. The peer
protocol used in the layer are the layer’s own
business. It can use ant protocol it want to.
• TCP/IP: The TCP/IP model did not clearly distinguish
between service, interface and protocol. 55
 Comparison of OSI & TCP/IP
Models
• The OSI model was devised before the
invention of protocols, hence they are not
biased towards one particular set of it.
• The OSI model have 7 layers while TCP/IP
have only 4 layers.
• The OSI model supports both connectionless
and connection-oriented communication in
the network layer, but only connection-
oriented communication in the transport
layer.
• The TCP/IP model has only one 56
 X.25 Network
• X.25 is a standard for WAN communications that
defines how connections between user devices and
network devices are established and maintained.
• It is typically used in the packet-switched networks
(PSNs) of common carriers, such as the telephone
companies.
• Subscribers are charged based on their use of the
network.
• The devices used in X.25 network fall into three
general categories:
– data terminal equipment (DTE),
– data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE),
– packet-switching exchange (PSE) 57
X.25 Network

58
 X.25 Network
• Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) devices are end systems
that communicate across the X.25 network.
• They are usually terminals, personal computers, or
network hosts, and are located on the premises of
individual subscribers.
• Data communication Equipment (DCEs) are
communications devices, such as modems and packet
switches that provide the interface between DTE devices
and a PSE, and are generally located in the carrier's
facilities.
• Packet-switching Exchange (PSEs) are switches that
compose the bulk of the carrier's network. They transfer
data from one DTE device to another through the X.25
59
PSN.
 X.25 Network
Packet Assembler/Disassembler
• The packet assembler/disassembler (PAD) is a
device commonly found in X.25 networks.
• The PAD is located between a DTE device and
a DCE device and it performs three primary
functions:
– buffering (storing data until a device is
ready to process it),
– packet assembly,
– and packet disassembly
60
 X.25 Network
The X.25 protocol suite maps to the lowest three layers
of the OSI reference model. The layers are:
• Physical layer: Deals with the physical interface
between an attached station and the link that
attaches that station to the packet-switching node.
X.21 is the most commonly used physical layer
standard.

61
 X.25 Network - Protocol Suite
• Frame (Link) layer: Facilitates reliable transfer of
data across the physical link by transmitting the
data as a sequence of frames. Uses Link Access
Protocol Balanced (LAPB), bit oriented protocol.
• Packet layer: Responsible for end-to-end
connection between two DTEs. Functions
performed are:
– Establishing connection
– Transferring data
– Terminating a connection
– Error and flow control
– With the help of X.25 packet layer, data are transmitted
in packets over external virtual circuits. 62
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode
•
(ATM)
ATM is an international standard for cell relay
wherein information for multiple service types,
such as voice, video, or data, is conveyed in small,
fixed-size cells.
• ATM networks are connection-oriented.
• Technically, it can be viewed as an evolution of
packet switching.
• ATM integrates the multiplexing and switching
functions, is well suited for bursty traffic (in contrast
to circuit switching), and allows communications
between devices that operate at different speeds.
63
ATM Protocol Architecture

64
 ATM Protocol Architecture
• Physical layer of the ATM protocol architecture
involves the specification of a transmission
medium and a signal encoding scheme.
• The main functions of the ATM physical layer
are as follows:
– Cells are converted into a bit stream,
– The transmission and receipt of bits on the
physical medium are controlled,
– ATM cell boundaries are tracked,
– Cells are packaged into the appropriate
types of frames for the physical medium. 65
 ATM Protocol Architecture
• ATM Layer
– The ATM layer provides routing, traffic
management, switching and multiplexing services.
– It processes outgoing traffic by accepting 48-byte
segment from the AAL sub-layers and
transforming them into 53-byte cell by addition of
a 5-byte header.
• ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
– Mapping the higher-layer information into ATM
cells to be transport over an ATM network.
– Collecting information from ATM cells for delivery
to higher layers.
66
 ATM Protocol Architecture
• The ATM reference model consists of the following
planes, which span all layers:
• Control—This plane is responsible for generating and
managing signaling requests.
• User—This plane is responsible for managing the
transfer of data.
• Management—This plane contains two components:
– Layer management manages layer-specific
functions, such as the detection of failures and
protocol problems.
– Plane management manages and coordinates
functions related to the complete system.
67
 ATM Network Interfaces
• An ATM network consists of a set of ATM
switches interconnected by point-to-point ATM
links or interfaces.
• ATM switches support two primary types of
interfaces: UNI and NNI.
• The UNI (User-Network Interface) connects ATM
end systems (such as hosts and routers) to an
ATM switch.
• The NNI (Network-Network Interface) connects
two ATM switches.
• UNI and NNI can be further subdivided into
public and private UNIs and NNIs. 68
 ATM Cell Format
• ATM transfers information in fixed-size units
called cells.
• Each cell consists of 53 octets, or bytes.
• The first 5 bytes contain cell-header
information, and the remaining 48 contain
the payload (user information).
• Small, fixed-length cells are well suited to
transfer voice and video traffic because such
traffic is intolerant to delays that result from
having to wait for a large data packet to
download, among other things. 69
 Frame Relay
• Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol
that operates at the physical and data link layers
of the OSI reference model.
• Frame Relay originally was designed for use
across Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
interfaces
• Frame Relay is based on packet-switched
technology.
• The following two techniques are used in packet-
switching technology:
– Variable-length packets
– Statistical multiplexing 70
Frame Relay

71
 Frame Relay
• Devices attached to a Frame Relay WAN fall into
the following two general categories:
– Data terminal equipment (DTE)
– Data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE)
• Examples of DTE devices are terminals, personal
computers, routers, and bridges.
• DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking devices.
The purpose of DCE equipment is to provide
clocking and switching services in a network,
which are the devices that actually transmit data
through the WAN. In most cases, these are
packet switches. 72