1.

1 Introduction to
Biochemistry
TRISHA RIAN S. LAZARO
BSED SCI 4A STUDENT TEACHER
 What is Biochemistry?
Biochemistry is the application of chemistry to the study of
biological processes at the cellular and molecular level.
It emerged as a distinct discipline around the beginning of the
20th century when scientists combined chemistry, physiology,
and biology to investigate the chemistry of living systems by:
A. Studying the structure and behavior of the complex molecules
found in bioogical material and;
B. The ways these molecules interact to orm cells, tissues, and
whole organism.
 Principles of Biochemistry
• Cells (basic structural units of living organisms)
are highly organized and constant source of
energy is required to maintain the ordered state.

• Living processes contains thousands of chemical

rxns. Precise regulation and intergration of these
rxns are required to maintain life.
 Principles of Biochemistry
• Certain important rnx E.g. Glycolysis is found in
almost all organisms.
• All organisms use the same type o molecules:
CHO, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
• Instructions for growth, reproduction and
developments for each is encoded in their DNA.
 Cells
• Basic building blocks of life
• Smallest living unit of an organism
• Grow, reproduce, use energy, adapt, respond to
their environment
• Many cannot be seen with the naked eye
• A cell may be an entire organism or it may be one
of billions of cells that make up the organism
Basic Cell Types
Cells may be Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic
• Prokaryotes include bacteria and lack of nucleus
or membrane-bound structures called organelles,
• Eukaryotes include most other cells and have a
nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
(plants, fungi, animals)
2 Main Types of a Eukaryotic Cell
BIO-
MOLECULES
• Just like cells are building blocks of tissues
likewise molecules are building blocks of cells.
• Animal and plant cells contain approximately
10,000 kinds of molecules (bio-molecules)
• Water constitutes 50-95% of cells content by
weight
BIO-
MOLECULES
• Ions like Na+, K+, and Ca+ may account for
another 1%.
• Almost all other kinds of bio-molecules are
organic (C, H, N, O, P, S)
• Infinite variety of molecules contain C.
• Most bio-molecules considered to be derives from
hydrocarbons.
BIO-
MOLECULES
• The chemical properties of organic bio-molecules
are determined by their functional groups. Most
bio-molecules have more than one.
Major Classes of small Bio-molecules
• Amino acids
• Building blocks of proteins
• Contains amino group and carboxyl group
function groups (behavioral properties)
• R Group (side chains) determines the chemical
properties of each amino acids.
• Also determinds how the protein folds and its
biological function.
Major Classes of small Bio-molecules
• Amino acids
• Individual amino acids in
protein connected by peptide
bond.
• Functions as transport
proteins, structural protein,
enzymes, antibodies, cell
receptors.
Major Classes of small Bio-molecules
2. Sugars
• Carbohydrates most abundant organic molecules
found in nature.
• Initially synthesized in plants from a complex
series of reactions involving photosynthesis.
• Basic unit is monosaccharides.
• Monossacharides can form larger molecules e.g.
glycogen, plant starch, or celullose.
Major Classes of small Bio-molecules
2. Sugars (Funtions)
• Strores energy in the form of starch
(photosynthesis in plants) or glycogen (in animals
and humans)
• Provides energy through metabolism pathways
and cycles.
• Supplies carbon for synthesis of other
compounds.
Major Classes of small Bio-molecules
2. Sugars (Funtions)
• Form structural components in cells and tissues
• Intracellular communications
Major Classes of small Bio-molecules
2. Fatty Acids
• Are monocarboxylic acid contains even number C
atoms.
• Two types: saturated (C-C sb) and unsaturated (C-
C db)
• Fatty acids are components of several lipid
molecules.
Major Classes of small Bio-molecules
2. Fatty Acids
• E.g. of lipids are triacylglycerol, steroids
(cholesterol, sex hormones), fat soluble vitamins.
Functions
• Storage of energy in the form of fat
• Membrane structures
• Insulation (thermal blanket)
• Synthesis of hormones
 Biochemical Reactions
• Metabolism: total sum of the chemical reaction
happening in a living organism (highly
coordinated and purposeful activity)
A. Anabolism - energy requiring biosynthetic pathways
B. Catabolism - degradation of fuel molecules and the
production of energy for cellular function
 Biochemical Reactions
• All reactions are catalyzed by enzymes.

The primary functions of metabolism are:

a. acquisition and utilization of energy
b. Synthesis of molecules needed for cell strcuture and
functioning. (i.e proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and CHO)
c. Removal of waste products
Even though thousands of rxns sound very
large and complex in a tiny cell:
• The types of rxn are small
• Mechanisms of biochemical rxns are simple
• Reactions of central importance (for energy
production and synthesis degradation of major cell
components) are relatively few in number.
 Frequent reaction encountered in
biochemical processes
• Nucleophilic Substitution
• One atom of group substituded for another.
2. Elimination Reactions
• Double bond is formed when atoms in a
molecule is removed.
 Frequent reaction encountered in
biochemical processes
3. Adddition Reactions:
• Two molecules combine to form a single product.
• A. Hydration Reactions
• Water added to alkene.alcohol (common addition
rxn)
 Frequent reaction encountered in
biochemical processes
4. Isomerization Reactions
• involved intramolecular shift of atoms or groups

5. Oxidation-Reduction (redox) Reactions

• occur when there is a transfer of e-from a donor to
an electron acceptor
 Frequent reaction encountered in
biochemical processes
6. Hydrolysis Reactions
• cleavage of double bond by water.
 Energy for Cells
• Living cells are inherently unstable
• Constant flow of energy prevents them from
becoming disorganized.
• Cells obtains enery mainly by the oxidation of
biomolecules (e-transferred from 1 molecules to
another and in doing so they lose energy.
• This energy captured by cells and used to maintain
highly organized cellular structure and functions.
 How fo complex structure of cells
maintain high internal order?
1. Synthesis of bio-molecules
2. Transport Across Membranes
• Cell membranes regulate the passage o ions and
molecules from one compartment to another.
 How fo complex structure of cells
maintain high internal order?
3. Cell Movement
• Organized movement - most obvious
characteristics of living cells. The intricate and
coordinted activities required to sustain life
require the movement of cell components.
 How fo complex structure of cells
maintain high internal order?
4. Waste Removal
• Animal cells convert food molecules into CO2,
H2O, and NH3. If these were not disposed
properly, it can be toxic.
1.1 Definition, Scope,
Importance
 Branches of Chemistry
• Medical Biochemistry- deals with chemical basis of
human body.

• Clinical Biochemistry- deals with clinical

diseases/pathological conditions of human body. It
supports: Diagnosis, Therapy and Research of
Medical field.
 Branches of Chemistry
• Bacterial Biochemistry - deals with Microbes.
• Plant Biochemistry - deals with Plants.
• Animal Biochemistry - deals with animals.
• Industrial Biochemistry - deals with industrial
products involved with microorganisms.
 Aims and Objectives to Study
Biochemistry
To know the various Biomolecules composed in
Human body:
• Chemistry/Structure
• Occurrence/Location
• Functions/Role
 Aims and Objectives to Study
Biochemistry

Determination of mode of action of

Biomolecules is by:
Isolation and Structural elucidation of
Biomolecules.
 Study of Biochemical of Cell and its
subcellular organelles
Chemistry, properties, functions, metabolism,
and related disorders.
1. Carbohydrates 4. Vitamins
2. Lipids 5. Minerals
3. Proteins 6. Water
 Nutrition and Metabolism of
Biomolecules
• Study of Food and its constituents
• Dietary Nutrients build human body and maintain
health
• Major prerequisite for the maintenance o health is that:
There should be optimal dietary intake of constituents with
good quality and appropriate quantity.
Metabolism and Biomolecules
• Ingestion
• Digestion
• Absorption
• Transport
• Uptake and
• Assimilation of food constituents in human body.
 Catabolic and Anabolic pathways related to
Biomolecules for Human Vitality:
• —Energy rich biomolecules get catabolized in
body cells to liberate chemical form of energy ATP
used for various body activities.

• —Various biomolecules are biosynthesized to

perform vital functions of human body.
—To maintain normal health of a human body:

• —Biomolecules in human body work

• —Cooperatively with good coordination,
Regulation and Interrelationship.
 Roles of Important Biomolecules
• CARBOHYDRATES - serves as primary source of
energy.
• LIPIDS - serves as secondary source of energy.
• PROTEINS - —are structural and functional units
of human body which are of prime importance
and survival of human beings.
 Roles of Important Biomolecules
• —VITAMINS - Fat soluble and Water soluble
vitamins have specific functions which serve as
accessory growth factors.
• MINERALS - Inorganic elements major and
minor type has important role in building and
functioning of human bodies.
 Roles of Important Biomolecules
• ENZYMES - are biomolecules which are
Biocatalysts catalyzes specific biochemical
reactions of metabolic pathways and considered
as functional units of metabolism.
• HORMONES - —the Endocrine substances,
chemical messengers of human body.
They bring good coordination and regulate
enzyme activities of metabolism.
 The Scope of Biochemistry
• —is to understand the functionality of the living cells,
tissues and the entire living system.
• to study the chemical processes that occur in
microorganisms, plants, insects, fish, birds, mammals
and human beings.
 Biochemical Aspects of
Health and Disease
—Unhealthy/Diseased body in biochemical point of
view is with:
—Derangement in their metabolic functions.
—Imbalanced levels of biochemical constituents
 Biochemical Aspects of
Health and Disease
—Health depends on a harmonious balance of
biochemical reactions occurring in the body

—Disease reflects abnormalities in biomolecules,

biochemical reactions, or biochemical processes in a
human body.
 Types of Diseases
Due to Biochemical Alterations
—Nutritional Disorders
—Inborn Errors of Metabolism
—Endocrine/Metabolic Disorders
—Genetic/Molecular Disorders
—Immunological Disorders
1.2 Biochemical
Processes
 What is a Biochemical Process?
Biochemical processes are the chemical processes
that occur in living organisms, involving
biomolecules.

Biomolecules are organic molecules produced by

organisms.
 DIFFUSION
the movement of molecules from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration until the
concentration becomes equal throughout. It helps in the
movement of substances in and out of the cells.
 Types of DIFFUSION
• Simple Diffusion - A process in which the substance
moves through a semipermeable membrane or in a
solution without any help from transport proteins. For
example, bacteria deliver small nutrients, water and
oxygen into the cytoplasm through simple diffusion.
 Types of DIFFUSION
2. Facilitated Diffusion - Facilitated diffusion is a passive
movement of molecules across the cell membrane from
the region of higher concentration to the region of lower
concentration by means of a carrier molecule.
 FACILITATED
DIFFUSION
Dialysis: It is the diffusion of solutes across a selectively
permeable membrane. A selectively permeable membrane
is one that allows only specific ions and molecules to pass
through, while it obstructs the movement of others.
 FACILITATED
DIFFUSION
Osmosis: It is the movement of solvent molecules from the
region of lower concentration to the region of higher
concentration through a semipermeable membrane. Since
water is solvent in every living being, biologists define
osmosis as the diffusion of water across a selectively
permeable membrane. For example, plants take water and
minerals from roots with the help of osmosis.
 Factors affecting Diffusion
There are a few factors that affect the process of diffusion,
which individually and collectively alters the rate and
extent of diffusion. These factors include:
• Temperature.
• Area of Interaction.
• Size of the Particle.
• The steepness of the concentration gradient.
 Causes of Diffusion
Diffusion is a natural and physical process, which happens
on its own, without stirring or shaking the solutions. Liquid
and gases undergo diffusion as the molecules are able to
move randomly. The molecules collide with each other and
change their direction.
 Significance of Diffusion
Diffusion is important for the following reasons:
• During the process of respiration, this process helps in
diffusing the carbon dioxide gas out through the cell
membrane into the blood.
• Diffusion also occurs in plant cells. In all green plants,
water present in the soil diffuses into plants through their
root hair cells.
• The movement of ions across the neurons that generates
electrical charge is due to diffusion.
 Significance of Diffusion
Diffusion is important for the following reasons:
• During the process of respiration, this process helps in
diffusing the carbon dioxide gas out through the cell
membrane into the blood.
• Diffusion also occurs in plant cells. In all green plants,
water present in the soil diffuses into plants through their
root hair cells.
• The movement of ions across the neurons that generates
electrical charge is due to diffusion.
 SURFACE TENSION
it is the phenomenon that occurs when the surface
of a liquid is in contact with another phase (it can
be a liquid as well). Liquids tend to acquire the
least surface area possible. The surface of the liquid
behaves like an elastic sheet.
 SURFACE TENSION
Surface tension not only depends upon the forces of
attraction between the particles within the given
liquid but also on the forces of attraction of solid,
liquid or gas in contact with it.
 What causes Surface Tension?
Intermolecular forces such as Van der Waals force,
draw the liquid particles together. Along the surface,
the particles are pulled toward the rest of the liquid.
Surface tension is defined as the ratio of the surface
force F to the length L along which the force acts.
What is the unit of Surface Tension?
 What is Fermentation?
occurs in yeast cells and bacteria and also in the muscles of
animals. It is an anaerobic pathway in which glucose is broken
down.

The respiration that happens at the minute level in our body,

viz., in the cell is called the cellular respiration. It occurs in the
presence or absence of oxygen. Any type of cellular
respiration begins with glycolysis where a 3-C molecule,
pyruvic acid is formed as the end product.
 Types of Fermentation
• Lactic Acid Fermentation
In this, starch or sugar is converted into lactic acid by yeast
strains and bacteria. During exercise, energy expenditure is
faster than the oxygen supplied to the muscle cells. This
results in the formation of lactic acid and painful muscles.
 Types of Fermentation
2. Alcohol Fermentation
Pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis is broken down into
alcohol and carbon dioxide. Wine and beer are produced by
alcoholic fermentation.
 Types of Fermentation

3. Acetic Acid Fermentation

Starch and sugar present in grains and fruits ferment into
vinegar and condiments. E.g. apple cider vinegar.
 What is Adsorption?
Adsorption is a process that involves the accumulation of
a substance in molecular species in higher
concentrations on the surface. If we look at Hydrogen,
Nitrogen and Oxygen, these gases adsorb on activated
charcoal. Also, we have to note that
adsorption is different from absorption. The two processes
involve totally different mechanisms.
For the adsorption process, two components are
required:
• Adsorbate: Substance that is deposited on the
surface of another substance. For example, H2, N2
and O2 gases.
• Adsorbent: Surface of a substance on which
adsorbate adsorbs. For example, Charcoal, Silica
gel, and Alumina.
 Types of Adsorption
• Physical adsorption
This type of adsorption is also known as physisorption. It
is due to weak Van der Waals forces between adsorbate
and adsorbent.
For example, H2 and N2 gases adsorb on coconut
charcoal.
Characteristics of physical adsorption:
• This type of adsorption is caused by physical forces.
• Physisorption is a weak phenomenon.
• This adsorption is a multi-layered process.
• Physical adsorption is not specific and takes place all over
the adsorbent.
• Surface area, temperature, pressure, and nature of
adsorbate effects physisorption.
• Energy for activation is low (20 – 40 kg/mol).
 Types of Adsorption
2. Chemical adsorption
This type of adsorption is also known as chemisorption. It
is due to strong chemical forces of bonding type between
adsorbate and adsorbent. We can take the example
involving the formation of iron nitride on the surface
when the iron is heated in N2 gas at 623 K.
Characteristics of chemical adsorption:
• This type of adsorption is caused by chemical forces.
• It is a very strong process.
• This type of adsorption is almost a single-layered
phenomenon.
• Chemisorption is highly specific and takes place at
reaction centres on the adsorbent.
• Surface area, temperature, and nature of adsorbate effects
chemisorption.
• The energy of activation is very high, 40 – 400 kJ/mol.
Thank you