chapter 13: heat treatment of

steels and cast irons

presentation made by;
crison p. maras
Chapter 13:
Heat treatment
of Steels and
Cast Irons
Presentation made by;
Crison P. Maras
 CAST IRON
STEEL

HEAT
Process of changing the FERROUS
TREATMENT
properties (ex: hardness,
ductility) of materials ALLOYS
(metals, ceramic) under
high temperature.
13-1 Designation and
classification of
Steels
CAST IRON
FERROUS Carbon is
ALLOYS 2% to 4%
Based on Iron-Carbon
(Fe-C) alloys, include
plain carbon steels, alloy
and tool steels, stainless
steels and cast irons. STEEL
Carbon <= 2%
Me ltin
gMe ta
1. PRIMARY 2. LIQUID 3. MOLTEN
STEEL l STEEL l STEEL l

Iron ore is heated in blast Liquid pig iron is blown Scrap metals undergoes in
furnace with coke (form of with oxygen in the Basic an Electric Arc Furnace to
Carbon) and Oxygen Oxygen Furnace resulting reduce impurities and
reducing the Iron oxide to a liquid steel having a bring Carbon to desired
pig iron. maximum of 2% Carbon. level. Then, it is poured
into molds to produce
Pig iron contains 95% Fe, finished steel castings or
4% C, 0.3 to 0.9 Si, 0.5% cast into shapes that are
Mn, 0.025% to 0.05% S, later processed.
P, and Ti.
Let’s
Cook!
 Classifications of Steel (Carbon content)
Ferrous Iron Carbon Silicon Copper Manganese Applications
Steel <2 <=0.6 <=0.6 <=1.65 Generally used
Decarbonized
steel 0.005 <=0.6 <=0.6 <=1.65
Ultra-low
carbon steels 0.03 <=0.6 <=0.6 <=1.65 Car bodies
1. Carbon content
Low-carbon
CLASSIFICATIONS
steel 0.04-0.15 <=0.6 <=0.6 <=1.65

Mild
Of STEEL
2. Alloy
steel steel
0.15-0.3 <=0.6 <=0.6 <=1.65
Buildings,
bridges, pipings

3. Specialty0.3-0.6
Medium-carbon steels Machinery,
steels <=0.6 <=0.6 <=1.65 tractors, mining
equipment

Springs,
High-carbon >0.6 but <2 <=0.6 <=0.6 <=1.65 railroad car
wheels
 Classifications of Steel (Alloy steel)

Other Elements Alloying

Elements
CLASSIFICATIONS
Steel Applications
OF STEEL
Carbon Silicon Copper Manganese Ni, Cr, Mo, Ti

1. Carbon content

2. Alloy steels making tools

(hammers,
chisels, etc.),
Alloy steels 1 >=0.6 >=0.6 >=1.65 <5 making parts
3. Specialty steels (axles, shafts,
and gears)
 Classifications of Steel
Distinct Features

CLASSIFICATIONS
Specialty steels higher levels of sulfur ( 0.1%) or lead (0.15 to 0.35%) to provide machinability
OF STEEL
Green steel lead, an environmental toxin, is replaced with tin (Sn) and>or antimony (Sb)
1. Carbon content
Concast steel continuously cast steel
2. Alloy steels
Galvanized zinc coated for corrosion resistance
steels
3. Specialty steels
Plated steel Tin is deposited using electroplating. Used to make corrosion-resistant cans and
other products
E-steels melted using an electric furnace
B-steels contain a small (0.0005 to 0.003%) concentration of boron
13-2 Simple Heat
Treatment Process Annealing
Eliminating cold work

Annealing
Four Simple Dispersion strengthening – Slow cool

Heat
Treatments Normalizing
Dispersion strengthening – Rapid cool

Spheroidizing
Improving machinability
 Process
Annealing
Eliminating cold work The recrystallization heat treatment
used to eliminate the effect of cold
The intent of the process working in steels with less than about
anneal treatment for
steels is similar to the 0.25% C is called a process anneal. It is
annealing of inorganic done 80°C to 170°C below the A1
glasses in that the main
idea is to significantly temperature.
reduce or eliminate
residual stresses.
 For annealing, austenitizing of hypoeutectoid steels is
conducted about 30°C above the A3, producing 100% y;
Annealing however, austenitizing of a hypereutectoid steel is done
Dispersion strengthening – at about 30°C above the A1, producing austenite and
Slow cool
Fe3C.

Annealing, or a full
anneal, allows the steel to
cool slowly in a furnace,
producing coarse pearlite.

This process prevents the formation of a brittle, continuous

film of Fe3C at the grain boundaries that occurs on slow
cooling from the 100% y-region.
 Normalizing
Dispersion strengthening –
Rapid cool

Normalizing allows the

steel to cool more rapidly,
in air, producing fine
pearlite. Figure 13-4
shows the typical
properties obtained by
annealing and normalizing
plain carbon steels
 During the spheroidizing treatment, which requires
several hours at about 30°C below the A1, the Fe3C phase
Spheroidizing morphology changes into large, spherical particles in
Improving machinability order to reduce boundary area. The microstructure,
known as spheroidite, has a continuous matrix of soft,
machinable ferrite (Figure 13-5). After machining, the
steel is given a more sophisticated heat treatment to
Steels that contain a large produce the required properties.
concentration of Fe3C
have poor machining
characteristics. It is
possible to transform the
morphology of Fe3C using
spheroidizing
APPLICATION OF
HARDENABILITY
JOMINY
TEST
is used to compare
hardenabilities of
steels. A steel bar 4 in.
long and 1 in. in
diameter is
austenitized, placed
into a fixture, and
sprayed at one end
with water.
JOMINY
TEST
This procedure produces a range
of cooling rates—very fast at
the quenched end, almost air
cooling at the opposite end.
After the test, hardness
measurements are made along
the test specimen and plotted to
produce a hardenability curve.
The distance from the quenched
end is the Jominy distance and
is related to the cooling rate
SPECIALTY
STEELS
SPECIALTY STEEL
• TOOL STEELS
• HIGH-STRENGTH-LOW-ALLOY (HSLA)
• DUAL-PHASE STEELS
• MARAGING STEELS
• INTERSTITIAL-FREE STEELS
SPECIALTY STEEL
TOOL STEELS HSLA
Usually high-carbon steels that Low-carbon steels containing small
obtain high hardnesses by a quench amounts of alloying elements. The
and temper heat treatment. Their HSLA steels are specified on the
applications include cutting tools in basis of yield strength with grades up
machining operations, dies for die to 80,000 psi; the steels contain the
casting, forming dies, and other uses least amount of alloying element that
in which a combination of high still provides the proper yield
strength, hardness, toughness, and strength without heat treatment.
temperature resistance is needed.
SPECIALTY STEEL
DUAL-PHASE STEELS MARAGING STEELS
Contain a uniform distribution of low-carbon, highly alloyed steels.
ferrite and martensite, with the The steels are austenitized and
dispersed martensite providing yield quenched to produce a soft
strengths of 60,000 to 145,000 psi. martensite that contains less than
These low-carbon steels do not 0.3% C. When the martensite is aged
contain enough alloying elements to at about 500°C, intermetallic
have good hardenability using the compounds such as Ni3Ti, Fe2Mo,
normal quenching processes. and Ni3Mo precipitate.
SPECIALTY STEEL
INTERSTITIAL-FREE STEELS
Steels containing Nb and Ti. They
react with C and S to form
precipitates of carbides and sulfides.
Thus, virtually no carbon remains in
the ferrite. These steels are very
formable and therefore attractive for
the automobile industry.
 SURFACE
TREATMENTS
SELECTIVELY HEATING THE
SURFACE
Rapidly heat the surface of a medium-carbon steel above the A3 temperature. After the steel
is quenched, the center is still a soft mixture of ferrite and pearlite, while the surface is
martensite. The depth of the martensite layer is the case depth. Tempering produces the
desired hardness at the surface.
CARBURIZING AND NITRIDING
Carburizing, also known as carburising, is a heat treatment process that involves
heating iron or steel in the presence of a carbon-bearing material such as charcoal or
carbon monoxide The aim of this process is to make the metal harder and more
wear-resistant.

Nitriding is a heat treatment process that involves diffusing nitrogen into the surface
of a metal to create a case-hardened surface 12. The process is typically used on
low-alloy steels, titanium, aluminum, and molybdenum. Nitriding is usually done by
heating steel objects in gaseous ammonia at temperatures between 500 and 550°C.
The nitrogen combines with iron and other alloying elements to form hard metallic
nitrides, which make the metal harder and more wear-resistant.
• Nitriding is a heat treatment process
that involves diffusing nitrogen into the surface of a metal to create a case-hardened surface 12.
The process is typically used on low-alloy steels, titanium, aluminum, and molybdenum 1.
Nitriding is usually done by heating steel objects in gaseous ammonia (NH3) at temperatures between 500 and 550°C2.
The nitrogen combines with iron and other alloying elements to form hard metallic nitrides, which make the metal harder an
d more wear-resistant
23
.
• There are three main methods of nitriding: gas nitriding, salt bath nitriding, and plasma nitriding 1. In gas nitriding, the donor
is a nitrogen-rich gas, usually ammonia (NH3), which dissociates into nitrogen and hydrogen when it comes into contact with
the heated workpiece. The nitrogen then diffuses onto the surface of the material creating a nitride layer. This process has
existed for nearly a century, though only in the last few decades has there been a concentrated effort to investigate the
thermodynamics and kinetics involved. Recent developments have led to a process that can be accurately controlled.
The thickness and phase constitution of the resulting nitriding layers can be selected and the process optimized for the partic
ular properties required
1
. Salt bath nitriding uses nitrogen-containing salts such as cyanide salt as the nitrogen donor. The salts used also donate
carbon to the workpiece surface making salt bath a nitrocarburizing process. The temperature used is typical of all
nitrocarburizing processes: 550 to 570°C.
Salt bath nitriding achieves higher diffusion in the same period of time compared to any other method 1. Plasma nitriding
uses an ionized gas (plasma) to diffuse nitrogen into the surface of a metal.
This method is often used when precise control over the thickness of the nitrided layer is required 1.
• I hope this helps!
WELDABILITY OF
STEEL
Understanding Weldability
Weldability refers to the ability of a
material to be welded without defects or
damage. In the context of steel, it involves
assessing the suitability of different steel
grades for welding applications. Factors
such as chemical composition, heat input,
and microstructure influence Weldability
refers to the ability of a material to be
welded without defects or damage. In the
context of steel, it involves assessing the
suitability of different steel grades for
welding applications. Factors such as
chemical composition, heat input, and
microstructure influence weldability.
Understanding these factors is crucial for
ensuring structural integrity in welded
steel components
Common Welding
Techniques
Several welding techniques are
commonly used for steel, including
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW),
gas metal arc welding (GMAW), and
flux-cored arc welding (FCAW). Each
technique has its advantages and
limitations, affecting the weld quality
and overall structural integrity. The
selection of the appropriate welding
technique depends on factors such as
joint design, material thickness, and
required weld strength.
Advancements in Welding
Technology
Advancements in welding technology
have significantly contributed to
enhancing the weldability and
structural integrity of steel.
Techniques such as laser beam
welding, friction stir welding, and
electron beam welding offer improved
control, reduced distortion, and
enhanced mechanical properties.
These advancements enable the
fabrication of complex steel structures
with superior weld quality and
increased durability.
 Challenges in Welding
Steel
Welding steel poses various
challenges, including heat-
affected zone (HAZ) cracking,
porosity, and brittle fracture.
These issues can compromise the
structural integrity of welded
steel components. Proper pre-
weld and post-weld heat
treatments, control of welding
parameters, and material
selection are crucial in mitigating
these challenges and ensuring
sound welds with enhanced
structural integrity.
Best Practices for
Welding Steel
To enhance the weldability and
structural integrity of steel, several
best practices should be followed.
These include proper joint preparation,
adequate shielding gas, controlled heat
input, and thorough post-weld
inspections. Additionally, selecting the
right filler material and ensuring proper
interpass temperature control are
crucial. Adhering to these best
practices minimizes defects, improves
weld quality, and maximizes the
longevity of welded steel structures.
STAINLESS
STEEL
Composition of Stainless Steel

Stainless steel is primarily

composed of iron, chromium, and
carbon. The addition of chromium
provides corrosion resistance, while
carbon enhances strength. Other
elements, such as nickel and
molybdenum, may be present to
further enhance specific properties.
The precise composition
determines the grade and
performance of stainless steel
Mechanical Properties

Stainless steel exhibits

exceptional strength, hardness,
and ductility. Its unique
combination of these mechanical
properties makes it suitable for a
wide range of applications. The
high tensile strength enables it to
withstand heavy loads, while its
ductility allows for shaping and
forming without compromising
structural integrity.
 Corrosion Resistance

One of the most significant

advantages of stainless steel is its
remarkable corrosion resistance.
The presence of chromium forms a
protective oxide layer on the surface,
preventing rust and corrosion. This
inherent property makes stainless
steel suitable for applications in
harsh environments, such as marine
and chemical industries.
Versatility in Applications
Stainless steel finds extensive
use in diverse industries,
including architecture,
automotive, medical, and food
processing. Its versatility stems
from its ability to be fabricated
into various forms, such as
sheets, tubes, wires, and bars.
Additionally, its hygienic
properties, aesthetic appeal, and
low maintenance make it a
preferred choice in many
applications.
Environmental Sustainability

Stainless steel is an
environmentally sustainable
material. It is 100% recyclable,
reducing the need for raw
materials extraction. Recycling
stainless steel also consumes
less energy compared to
producing it from scratch.
Furthermore, its long lifespan
and durability contribute to
reducing waste and
environmental impact.
CAST IRON
What is Cast Iron?

Cast iron is a group of iron-

carbon alloys with a carbon
content greater than 2%. It is
known for its exceptional
strength, durability, and
versatility. Cast iron is widely
used in cookware, construction,
and automotive industries.
Properties of Cast Iron
Cast iron exhibits high
compressive strength,
excellent heat retention, and
superior wear resistance. Its
brittle nature makes it less
suitable for applications
requiring high tensile
strength. However, the ability
to be cast into complex
shapes and its cost-
effectiveness make it a
highly desirable material.
 Applications of
Cast Iron

Cast iron finds extensive use in

various applications such as
engine blocks, piping systems,
railway components, and
architectural structures. Its
thermal conductivity makes it
ideal for cooking and heating
purposes, while its strength
allows it to withstand heavy
loads in construction and
engineering projects.
Advantages of Cast Iron

The advantages of cast iron

include its high melting point,
excellent castability, good
machinability, and longevity.
Cast iron also has excellent
heat distribution, making it a
preferred choice for cooking. Its
corrosion resistance can be
enhanced through surface
treatments and coatings.
 Limitations of
Cast Iron
Despite its many advantages,
cast iron has some limitations.
It is brittle, making it
susceptible to cracking under
high tensile stress. Cast iron is
also heavy compared to other
materials, which can be a
disadvantage in certain
applications. Additionally, its
corrosion resistance may vary
depending on the specific alloy
and environmental conditions.
 Maintenance
and Care
Proper maintenance and care
are essential to ensure the
longevity of cast iron products.
This includes regular seasoning
to prevent rust, proper cleaning
techniques to avoid damage,
and avoiding extreme
temperature changes. With
proper care, cast iron can
provide years of reliable service
and retain its exceptional
strength and versatility.
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