A2 Textiles

Vegetable Fibres
Cotton Linen Sisal
Seed Bast- flax Leaf-agave cactus
Staple fibres Staple fibres Natural sustainable fibres
Absorbs 65% of weight Strong, durable, good High strength, durable,
without dripping, non drape, highly absorbent, easy to dye, anti static,
static, breathable, soft fast drying, non static, water resistant,
handle, good drape, crisp, shrink proof, low
creases easily, strong, elasticity, dirt repellent
biodegradable
Shirts, underwear, Tablecloths, tea towels, Ropes, hairbrush bristles,
curtains, towels, tents shirts, skirts baskets
 Types of Silk
Wild Silk Cultivated Silk
• Tussah silk moth • Mulberry silk worm
• Filament fibres • Filament fibres
• Fine, smooth, lustrous, soft handle,
• Coarse, uneven, thicker fibre elegant drape
• Heaver than cultivated • Elastic, crease resistant
• Absorbent and non static, • Can absorb a 1/3 of its weight
• Could stain without feeling wet
• Cool, but good insulator
• Dull lustre
• Strong, durable, light
• Fabrics: Tussah silk, shantung • Fabrics: chiffon, crepe, voile
• End uses: curtains, wall • End uses: luxury day and evening
coverings, lampshades and hats wear, wadding for ski wear, scarves,
ties , hats
 Natural Fibres
Luxury Hair Fibres Mineral
Cashmere Mohair Angora Llama Vicuna Asbestos
From the Kel goat
Staple fibres
From the
angora goat
From the angora
rabbit
Llama, Vicuna Warm, Non
and Guanaco – flammable,
Soft luxurious Staple fibres Softness, silky They are all
insulator due
handle Soft silky texture, good to scales, resistant to
from species of
Light handle warmth, lightweight most
Lustrous 35% warmer End Uses: Llama, finest fibres, chemicals,
Thermal than wool Sweaters and produce
insulation Durable Suits fine fibres, soft provide
Crease resistant Hardwearing in appearance thermal
Dirt repellent Crease
Non static resistant
but are hard insulation.
Typical blends: Fire retardant wearing and Now
Wool Typical strong, replaced
Silk blends: lightly crimped with Nomex
Polyester Wool and have very
End uses: Cotton good thermal
Coats, knitwear, Silk properties
yacht interiors End Uses: creating warm
Scarves fabrics
Suiting used in jackets,
Evening wear
overcoats,
knitted fabrics
and blankets.
 Regenerated Fibres
Lyocell Cupro Triacetate Rubber Alginate
High Natural rubber
performance is made from
staple viscose latex, synthetic
fibre
Produced from is made from
renewable petrochemicals
sources; wood Natural stretch
pulp and pliability
Fibrillation- micro Warm, soft,
fine surface anti static, light
A variety of sensitive,
surface effects not breathable.
Strong, easy care,
dyes well, Good for
wicking floorings, tyres.
properties,
breathable,
biodegradable
 Synthetic Fibres
Kevlar Nomex Flourofibres Polyethylene Polypropylene
Teflon
Brand name for Brand name for Made from Synthetic fibre Synthetic fibre in
a family of a family of petrochemicals, in the the polyolefin
aramid fibres. aramid fibres hydrophobic polyolefin family made
olephobic, used from
High strength, that are high in high tech family made petrochemicals
lightweight, temperature fabrics e.g. Gore- from Thermoplastic,
chemical and resistant Tex petrochemicals strong, resistant
flame resistant, Heat and flame Chemical to chemicals, non
flexible and resistant, resistant, absorbent,
Teflon is a brand wicking
comfortable, 5x durability, anti name for PTFE. lightweight,
stronger than static, low Protects fabric low melting properties,
steel shrinkage, easy against water, oil point, abrasion crease resistant,
and stains. Invisible non allergenic
Protective care, comfort, barrier, stops fabric
resistant, dry Good for medical
wear, aesthetic absorbing stain, quickly, resist and hygiene
bulletproof qualities. windproof, dyeing products
vest waterproof, stain
resistant, easy care
breathable
 Inorganic Fibres
Glass Carbon Metallic Ceramics

Durable, strong, Made by burning Aluminium, copper, Resistant to very

shatterproof, poor acrylic fibre. steel commonly high temperatures,
abrasion Very strong, used. provide UV
resistance, heat lightweight, Strong, lightweight, protection, good
and cold resistance, abrasion resistant, abrasion insulation, resistant
resistant to flame resistant, resistance, to chemicals, low
chemicals, non resistant to conductive, thermal
toxic chemicals protection for conductivity
active sports
 How do fibres structure affect their
properties?
• Round cross section for synthetic fibres
• Wool has cuticles that matte together when heated
• Flax fibres are identified by their nodes which add to the
flexibility and texture of linen. The irregular polygonal
shapes contribute to the coarse texture
• The structure of cotton accounts for its wick ability and
absorbency
• The crimp in wool makes wool have a greater bulk, they
hold air which makes wool a good insulator
• The flat surfaces of the fibrils reflect light at many angles,
giving silk a natural sheen.
 Commercial Names
Tencel Lycra Polartec Tactel Trevira

Trade name for

lyocell Brand name for
elastane or Type of Nylon polyolefin, such as
polypropylene or
spandex Polar fleece Soft, smooth, polyethylene. It is used
Made by dry breatable and in wallpaper, carpeting,
ropes, and vehicle
spinning lightweight, interiors. Its
advantages are
its strong, colour
fastness,
comfort,
resistance to
stains, abrasion
and sunlight
 Woven Fabrics
Herringbone Twill Diamond Weave
• V shaped weaving pattern • Can be created by hand
• Resembles a broken zigzag
• Usually wool
• Suits and outerwear
 Woven Fabrics
Dog’s Tooth Check Brocades
• Coats and jackets • Silks
• Duotone • typically woven on a draw loom.
• Tweed and wool • It is a supplementary weft
• alternating bands of four dark technique; that is, the
and four light threads in both ornamental brocading is
warp and weft/filling woven in a produced by a supplementary,
simple 2:2 twill, two over/two non-structural, weft in addition to
under the warp, advancing one the standard weft that holds the
thread each pass. warp threads together. The
purpose of this is to give the
appearance that the weave was
actually embroidered on.
 Woven Fabrics
Jacquards
• Jacquard fabric features a raised pattern that
is woven (instead of printed) onto the fabric.
Popular jacquard designs include damasks,
florals, and geometrics. This textured fabric
has varying drape-ability and durability
depending on the fibres used
 Three Yarn System Woven Fabrics
Velvet Corduroy Terry Towelling

Raised surface formed by A ribbed weft cut pile Plain woven cotton fabric
tufts or loops that stand up fabric that is brushed. The made from two warps.
from the fabric. Cut pile pile runs parallel to the The ground warp is highly
tensioned and pile warp is
weave. selvedge and the cords looser. When the weft yarns
may be medium or broad. are beaten into the fabric the
Cotton corduroy is used for looser pile warp end form
trousers, skirts and jackets. loops.
Usually made from cotton, the
loops make it very absorbent.
 Woven Fabrics
Double Cloth Pique
• Double-faced fabrics are a • Piqué, or marcella, refers to a weaving
style, normally used with cotton yarn,
form of double cloth made which is characterized by raised parallel
of one warp and two sets of cords or fine ribbing. Piques may be
constructed in various patterns such as
wefts, or (less often) two cord, waffle, honeycomb and birdseye
warps and one weft. These piques. These fabrics require the addition
of extra yarns, called stuffer yarns. These
fabrics have two right sides stuffer yarns are incorporated into the
or faces and no wrong side, back of the fabric to give texture and
added depth to the fabric design. Some
and include most blankets, piques may be made using the Jacquard
satin ribbons, and attachment on the loom. Although made
of 100% cotton today, cotton-silk blends
interlinings. Double weaving and even pure silk versions were made in
is an ancient technique. the past and in a variety of weaves.
 Woven Fabrics
• Bedford Cord
• Durable fabric that resembles corduroy
• Faint lengthwise ridges but without the filling
yarns that make the distinct characteristic of
corduroy.
• Stiff construction- used in upholstery or
outerwear
 Special Woven Effects
• Yarn dyed stripes
• Plaids:
• Tartans: made with alternating bands of coloured threads woven as
both warp and weft at right angles to each other. The weft is woven in a
simple twill weave, advancing one thread each pass. This forms visible
diagonal lines where different colours cross. Commonly uses with wool
• Madras: lightweight cotton fabric with typically patterned texture and
plaid design. Madras is a lightweight cotton fabric with typically
patterned texture and plaid design
• Checks: pattern of modified stripes consisting of crossed horizontal and
vertical lines forming squares.
• Crepe: is a silk, wool, or synthetic fibre fabric with a distinctively crisp,
crimped appearance.
 Cultural Weaving Traditions
• Ashanti strip weaving: originated from Ghana, the most labour
intense weaving in the world. Became true art form and
represented the concept of royalty and status.
• Back strap looms: Peru, Guatemala, China, Japan, Bolivia, and
Mexico are a few of the countries where weavers use a type of
backstrap loom. The looms are simple - typically 6-7 rods-
often handmade by the weaver. A backstrap loom is easily
portable because it can simply be rolled up and laid aside
when not in use.
• Ikat weaving: dyeing technique used to pattern textiles that
employs a resist dyeing process on the yarns prior to dyeing
and weaving the fabric.
 Weft Knit
Plain Single Jersey
• Continuous length of yarn • Front is smooth
• Fed across the width of a • Back shows loops
fabric by a series of needles • ‘curl’ at the edges
• Unravelled • Made using a single set of
• Cannot be cut needles
• Produces soft, comfortable, • Plain without any rib
variable stretch • Low stretch
 Weft Knit
Double Jersey Rib Knit
• Two sets of fabrics • Two set of needles which
• Needles work alternatively are staggered
• Two courses produce one • Alternate loops are knitted
row of loops in opposite directions
• Compact, stable, durable, • Vertical lines in the fabric
retain their shape • Very elastic widthways
• Not very elastic
 Weft Knit
Pique Knit Jacquard Knit
• Has a patterned design in
three or more colours
• Selected needles knit coloured
yarns in a specified pattern
using CAM
• In each course the pattern in
built up
• If the colour is not required on
the front, it will float along the
back
• Not very elastic
 Warp Knit
• Straight or circular knitting machines
• Each loop is fed by its own separate yarn
• Loops interlock vertically
• Some elasticity, do not ladder
• Cant be unravelled
• Can be cut
• Swimwear, leisure and underwear
 Warp Knit
Locknit Atlas
• Combination of tricot and • Laps are continued over two
2x1 plain knit stitches or more courses in one
• Filament yarns direction and after a turning
• Lustrous fabric course the laps return in
opposite direction to the
• Used for linings, underwear starting point.
• Face had vertical wales of • The stripes formed in this
small loops way depend in width on the
• Back shows a zigzag number of stitches between
formation the turning points and the
adjusted number of courses
 Warp Knit
Raschel Lace Net Structures
• Do not stretch
• Often bulky
• Made out of conventional
or novelty yarns
 Knitting Methods
• Fully fashioned: individual components are knitted to
shape so they can be sewn to make the product,
without cutting the fabric. Reduces waste
• Panel knitting: fabric is knitted in individual panels of
a width to suit the end product. Produces some waste
• Cut and Sew/ Piece goods: long lengths of knitted
fabric is produced in a tube on a circular knitting
machine. Cut to shape to make product.
• 3D knitting: knitted in one piece, incorporating all
garment shaping. No waste
Made directly from
fibres Non Woven Fabrics
Felted (Felt) Bonded Needled
Made by interlocking fibres so Web of fibres bonded with an Matted together by
they become matted. No adhesive, solvents, or by mechanical action using
strength, drape, elasticity, thermoplastic properties barbed needles to entangle
does not fray, warm and Used for fusible interlinings the fibres
resilient. Retains shape, Synthetic fibres generally used.
absorbs sound A batt of fibres is repeatedly
3 classes of felt: punched
Pressed wool felt Adhesive: spraying, dipping, or Hydro-entangled needle felt
Animal hair matted together spreading foam Fibres are entangled in a web
by moisture, mechanics or Thermally: thermoplastic with high pressure water jets
heat. Solvent:
Expensive, squashed in felting
machines

Woven or knitted Elastic, lightweight

Matted in a milling machine.
E.g. Loden
 Non Woven Fabrics
Stitch bonded Laminated fabrics
• Weaving machine that • A laminated fabric is a two
bonds the web, or holds the (or more) layer construction
web in place, with with a polymer film bonded
longitudinal yarns. to a fabric. Laminated
• Softer than other bonded fabrics are used in rainwear,
fabrics automotive, and other
applications
 Open Work Fabrics
Lace Leno Net Crotchet Macrame
Fine, open Weave in which two Net or netting Hand made Using knotting
fabric of mesh warp yarns are is any textile in chain of loops, rather than
twisted around the
or net. weft yarns to which the produced from weaving or
Bobbin lace- by provide a strong yet yarns are a single thread knitting. Its
hand, pins on sheer fabric. The fused, looped using a hook. primary knots
standard warp yarn
pillow is paired with a or knotted at Chains of loops are the square
Embroidery skeleton or 'doup' their can be linked knot (a variant
lace- hand or yarn; these twisted intersections, to make of the reef
machine, warp yarns grip resulting in a crotchet fabric knot) and
tightly to the weft
pattern on which causes the fabric with forms of
ground fabric, durability of the open spaces "hitching": full
ground fabric. Leno weave between the hitch and
produces an open
removed by fabric with almost yarns. double half
cutting or burnt no yarn slippage or hitches.
out misplacement of
threads
 New Technology
Microfibers Breathable Membrane Systems
• A very fine thin fibres less • Used in laminated fabrics
than one denier thick/ 60x • Hidden between the outer
finer than human hair fabric layer and the lining
• Microfibres are very • Tiny holes allow water
lightweight, soft and drape vapour to pass through the
well. Because they are so fabric but are too small for
fine they are often able to raindrops to penetrate
wick perspiration away from
• Gore-Tex
the body which makes them
cool and comfortable for
next-to-skin applications.
 Technical Terms Related to Yarns
• Tex: the weight in grams of 1000 metres of
yarn
• Denier Systems: measurement for the density
of fibres, the mass in grams per 9000 metres
• 75 denier is considered fine
• 150 denier is heavier
 BSI
• Helps to develop British, European and International standards, which are
used to ensure the safety and quality of a wide range of products.
• Test make use of:
• Manufacturing specs, fibre testing, fabric testing, manufacturing
prototypes,
• Test are carried out under controlled conditions
• ICT is used in testing: test ideas in 3D/2D, work out dye recipes
• Textiles in the home, for transport, leisure, sport, industry, fire resistance
products need to be tested to BS specifications
• Nightwear for children, must comply with BS5722, relating to flammability.
 Testing
Test Method British
Standards
Test
Strength Snap yarns by hand BS 2576

Seam Pull the seam apart to see if it grins BS3320

strength

Tear Make a small nick in fabric square, into warp, weft and BS33 56
strength bias

Crease Fold sample in half with paper in between. Place 1kg on BS 22313
resistance crease, for five minutes, five minutes to recover

Drape Place measured circle of fabric over a tube on graph BS 5058

paper. Shine light to cast a shadow, draw around shadow.
Least shadow, best drape
 Commercial Testing
• Flammability
• Resistance to Abrasion
• Resistance to Shrinkage
• Colour Fastness
 Yarn Types
• Folded-2 or more yarns
• Cabled- twisting of two or piled yarns
• Core-multi-component yarns, core stays in the centre, staple fibres yarns
are spun around it
• Fancy-special spinning process, to give irregularities
• Colour Effects-mixing fibres of different colours or plying coloured yarns
• Slub- spun with slubs(thicker bits) along the length
• Boucle- loops, 2 strands, tension of one being much looser
• Chenille-pile yarn between 2 core yarns
• Lustre Effects- mixing matte and bright fibres e.g. polyester and Lurex
• Textured Effects-thermoplastic synthetic filament yarn, heat process
creates, crimps, coils or loops
 Yarn Categories
Novelties Specialised Performance

Novelty yarns include a Used for an intended High tech, used for sports
wide variety of yarns made purpose wear.
with unusual features, E.g. sewing threads e.g. yarns with elastane
structure or fibre
composition such as slubs,
inclusions, metallic or
synthetic fibres, laddering
and varying thickness
introduced during
production.
 Fibres Blends
• Used to improve the properties and appearance of a given
fibre type making it more cost effective to manufacture
• Have the combined properties of each fibre
• E.g. poly-cotton, crease resistance from polyester and
absorbency from cotton
• Improves performance in use, finishing options, comfort,
aftercare
• Improved appearance
• Aesthetics can be engineered into a fabric
• Improved ease of manufacture
• Improved fibre supply, yarn count and uniformity of yarns
 Smart Materials
Responds to needs of wearer
• Smart Materials include ones that:
• Monitor body functions and administer medicines/give warnings
• Maintain a personal micro-climate, eg Stomatex, Outlast
• Can provide buoyancy and support, eg bodysuits for
medical/physiotherapy support
• Have chromatic properties and change colour in response to specific
situations
• Have shape memory, eg Corpo Nove shirt which adjusts to differing
temperatures
• Are self-cleaning, eg nano-technology fabrics triggered by sunlight
• Use biomimetics that imitate nature, eg Fastskin, Stomatex
• Can generate solar power when exposed to sunlight
• Can sense and track movement, eg SensFloor Smart carpets.
 Technical and Modern Materials
• Technical and Modern Materials include the following examples:
• Gore-Tex
• Kevlar & Nomex
• Phosphorescent textiles
• Reflective textiles using glass beads
• Fabrics that wick moisture away from the body, eg Coolmax
• Microencapsulated fibres, eg those which release scents
• Fabrics which protect against bacteria, eg Purista, Chitopoly
• Fabrics with electronics, eg GPS systems
• Geotextiles
• Materials using Nano-technology
• Microfibres
 Design Movements
• Art Nouveau-1895/WW1, simple natural
forms, curved lines, geometric forms,
decorative, available to wealthy only, rejected
industrial mass production
• Art Deco-early 20th century, modern, elegant,
one-off, snakeskin, influenced Poiret
• Pop Art
• Orientalism
 Design Influences
• Rise of Youth Culture
• Role of Women
• War and Conflict
• Sport and Leisure
• Technological Developments
• Music and Film
• Rise of Celebrity Culture
 Fashion Timeline
• 1900’s-Poiret eployed young girls with no design
training, produced naïve clothing, this look was in
line with the fauvist and cubist movement of the
time
• 1920’s-art deco style, egypitain motifs with
discovery Tutankhamun, looser shapes influenced
by eastern clothing,bias cut, Fortuny=unpleated,
unstructured DELPHOS dress. Jazz era, viscose
rayon, clothes that moved with body, screen
printing process, lace, fur and feathers
 Fashion Timeline
• 1930’s-Chanel’s jersey day dress, florals,
geometrics, nylon was invented, two way stretch
woven developed. Surrealism, Schiaparelli’s first
pullover.
• 1940’s-rationing during WW2,skirts were slim and
shorter, jackets were single breasted and trousers
were one length, ‘make do and mend’, recycling,
silk was cut off from Japan so nylon was popular
substitute, American fashion rose(Paris was
occupied), denim and gingham,
 Fashion Timeline
• 1950’s-futuristic imagery, bright, abstract
shapes=atomic era, skirts became fuller, Hawaiian
shirts and American prints, Balenciaga created
silhouettes that worked away from body, acyclic,
polyester, spandex invented
• 1960’s-baby boomers reached teens, shorts skirts,
space travel influenced bold patterns, trousers
were normal for women, jeans became popular
with influence of movie stars e.g. James Dean,
flower power was coined
 Fashion Timeline
• 1970’s- unisex, Vietnam war=hippy, non western
cultures, men wore bright colours, lace and frills, oil
crisis=less synthetic fabric, Laura Ashely
• 1980’s- Margret Thatcher, tailored suits, larger
shoulders, power dressing, underwear worn as
outerwear, Madonna’s conical bra outfit, lycra
developed, recycled cotton was introduced
• 1990’s-clothes looked man made not mass produced,
ripped denim and customisation
• 2000’s-modern fabrics and CAM
 Alexander McQueen
1969- 2010

• Most influential and creative

• Savile Row men’s tailor
• Cutting edge fabric-laminated lace, vinyl, tartan PVC, stainless steal
• Highland Rape
• Buster pants
• Unleashed rain on the runway
• Shalom Harlow as a human canvas
• Inspired by a nomad's desolate journey into the tundra, McQueen placed models inside a torrential wind
tunnel
• The collection's bird theme served as a symbolic tribute to the late Isabella Blow
• After Queen Elizabeth II appointed him a Commander of the British Order in 2003, McQueen paid tribute to
her with this collection
• Fall 2009
• For this collection, McQueen commented on societal excess by setting the stage with scrap debris from past
shows. "This happened after the economic collapse and it was McQueen’s way of saying we all have too
much, want too much, do too much," says Rubenstein. "The classic houndstooth check dress is completely
over-the-top with the most extraordinary tailoring. A lot of the models wore trash bags on their heads.”
 Paul Poiret

• Paul Poiret: his designs were built on the concept that the shape of women should be a
natural stance, based on the way nature made them. He got rid of the constricting corsets
such as the S-bend which had distorted women’s figures for years. He introduced a range
of designs in the early years of the 20th century, e.g. in 1911 his very narrow hobble skirts
were so narrow at the hem that it was impossible for a woman to take a step of more than
5 – 7cm.
• Poiret was strongly influenced by the art and design of the Middle East and India and early
in 1911 he introduced the Turkish skirt and the harem skirt which was a divided or trouser
skirt, made short sensational appearances.
• For his Thousand and Second Night fancy dress ball of 1911, Poiret dressed his wife in a
wired lampshade tunic over harem trousers. Although he claimed to have freed women
from the tyranny of the corset, some of his more extreme outfits verged on fancy dress or
stage costume and were thought to be outrageous by many women.
• His controversial and revolutionary ideas were to have a lasting effect on fashion. He also
introduced the V neck, and blouses with this new neckline were referred to as pneumonia
blouses.
• He was the 1st designer to introduce designer perfumes and cosmetics.
 Chanel
• Chanel became a famous designer during the 1920s and established herself as an important and lasting
influence on 20th Century fashion.
• She caught the changing mood of the time, helping to change the way status was shown through dress.
• Her speciality was the use of jersey fabrics (previously only used for men’s underwear) which she had made to
her own designs and colours, and she used them in ways previously reserved for luxurious fabrics.
• What people at the top of the fashion trade found so shocking about Chanel was the way she introduced good
working class clothes into polite society. But however simple her clothes might be, they always had an elegance
which made everyone admire and copy them. Her clothes were designed on simple, easy to wear lines, bringing
practicality and comfort to haute couture fashions.
• She was responsible for introducing the little black dress at a time when black was only worn for mourning, the
3-piece cardigan suit, cheap costume jewellery and accessories. These are still fashionable today.
• The very short skirts of the 1920s worn by Flappers caused a sensation at the time. The fashionable ideal for
women in the early post-war years was young and girlish with an adolescent figure.
• Mannerisms and poses also changed: women stood with the pelvis pushed slightly forward, shoulders hunched
and one hand resting on the hip, giving a slightly concave look to the chest and torso.
• new, modern ideas on dress and behaviour were not shared by everybody; many people were very conservative
in outlook.
• By the mid twenties, many fashionable young women were using cosmetics freely and sometimes rather
crudely. Shorter skirts and the use of cosmetics continued to influence fashions throughout the 20th century and
were related to women’s increasingly equal status in the world.
 Westwood
• Vivienne Westwood introduced many controversial designs during the 1970s
and 1980s, including Punk fashions. Clothes were usually in black or strong
colours with black. Loose T-shirts had messages or slogans printed on them,
and jackets and trousers were in matt or sheen cotton or sometimes inleather
or leather-look fabrics. Bondage trousers, were joined together at the back
with loose dangling straps; lengths finished well above the ankle to show
bright socks and high-laced leather or rubber combat boots. Both sexes wore
similar outfits but girls sometimes wore miniskirts with brightly coloured
footless tights and pointed-toe stiletto heeled shoes. Hair was short and spiky
all over or cropped at the sides with a high standing tuft of hair which went
from the back to the front of the head in North America Indian style. The hair
was also dyed bright startling colours. Some more outrageous individuals also
wore safety pins through their nose or ears.
• Her work influenced other designers, including Alexander McQueen in
producing avant-garde designs that question traditional values
 Product Lifecycle
idea->development->manufacture->use, care->disposal
• Product introduction: This stage of the cycle could be the most expensive for a company launching a new
product. The size of the market for the product is small, which means sales are low, although they will be
increasing. On the other hand, the cost of things like research and development, consumer testing, and the
marketing needed to launch the product can be very high, especially if it’s a competitive sector
• Growth: The growth stage is typically characterized by a strong growth in sales and profits, and because the
company can start to benefit from economies of scale in production, the profit margins, as well as the overall
amount of profit, will increase. This makes it possible for businesses to invest more money in the promotional
activity to maximize the potential of this growth stage.
• Maturity: During the maturity stage, the product is established and the aim for the manufacturer is now to
maintain the market share they have built up. This is probably the most competitive time for most products
and businesses need to invest wisely in any marketing they undertake. They also need to consider any
product modifications or improvements to the production process which might give them a competitive
advantage.
Decline and replacement: Eventually, the market for a product
will start to shrink, and this is what’s known as the decline stage.
This shrinkage could be due to the market becoming saturated
(i.e. all the customers who will buy the product have already
purchased it), or because the consumers are switching to a
different type of product. While this decline may be inevitable, it
may still be possible for companies to make some profit by
switching to less-expensive production methods and cheaper
markets.
Product disposal: recycled, re used or disposed through landfill
 Product Lifecycle
Environmental Issues Impact of Recycling
• 5% of household rubbish is Advantages Disadvantages
recycled Saves money for Takes times and
manufacture effort to adopt a
• Designing for recycling, Conservation of recycling approach
designing durable products that non renewable Blended fibres
energy make recycling very
will last and using products until Reduced energy expensive
they actually wear out, will all consumption
reduce the overall volume of Fewer greenhouse
gases
rubbish to be disposed of Cleaner air and
• Changing the consumer culture, water
Decreased
where goods are often replaced dependency on raw
because something more materials
fashionable has come along
 Fashion Cycles
• Fad: The Fad cycle would be represented by a steep introduction and growth
of a new ‘high fashion/ radical new story/ must have fashion product’. There
would be little or no maturity stage and the product sales decline as quickly
as they grew, as once the product is accepted it is no longer a fashion Fad.
The sales cycle for a fad will tend to be rather short. It may be a seasonal
product, e.g. for Xmas, Jubilee.
• Classic: The Classic product cycle would see a gradual period of introduction
and once accepted and established as a classic product the maturity stage
would continue in an undulating pattern, with no obvious decline in the sales
cycle. Maintaining popularity with its target markets. E.g. ‘little black dress’.
• Standard: The standard fashion cycle follows a bell curve with a gradual
period of
• growth and the plateau at the maturity stage is the longest part of the cycle,
• then there is a gradual decline in sales. E.g. leggings.
 Trends
• Trend forecasting is • Target market groups:
essential, research colour, • Age group
style and fashion trends
• Colour- change with • Gender
seasons • Disposable income
• Lifestyle-’dress down • Lifestyle
Friday’s’, simpler styles
• Product end use
• Clothing that is easier to
maintain
• A more slimmer body shape
due to exercise and dieting
 Trend Sources
• New technology-circular knitting has led to seamless underwear
• Shop reports- are an analysis of what consumers are buying, and what shops are stocking. They can
give an overview of trends, especially those shops catering for the high end market, where fashions
from new and up and coming designers may be sold. This may help new designers to be recognised
and to see what is popular with consumers in different segments of the market. What consumers
actually buy is often an accurate indicator of what they want and what they value. But this data can
also be unreliable, especially if other factors disrupt, or activate, retail activity.
• Trade fairs- are when manufacturers of yarn, fabric, components or clothing showcase and sell their
new ranges, e.g. Première Vision (France), Pitti Filati (Italy). They also show the colour predictions for
the forthcoming seasons. Designers and product manufacturers are able to view samples and order
the newest materials to ensure that their products are up-to-date. Once the textile manufacturer has
enough orders, the material will be produced. Designer shows and ready-to-wear trade fairs take
place twice a year, when the fashions for the following season are showcased. These are an
opportunity for new designers to show their ideas, and for other designers to see what others are
doing. Trade Fairs are an efficient way for a textile manufacturer to reach a large audience of potential
buyers, to meet other manufacturers and suppliers, and to see what competitors are offering. They
are very expensive to run. Designers may attend these fairs to source a particular type of fabric, or
they may go to be inspired by the latest materials so they will be able to ensure that their designs are
on-trend
• Fabric fairs- Expofil, predicted colours, yarns and textures
 Explain what is meant by a product life
cycle analysis.(8 marks)
• A product life cycle considers all stages of a products life from
the initial idea and concept through product development to
the disposal of the product after it has finished its useful life.
An understanding of the impact upon the environment of a
product throughout its lifetime would be considered during
the concept stage. The manufacturing cycle would need to
be considered under processing. An understanding of the
impact of the product on the consumer, how long the selling
period may be. Consideration of the care and maintenance
of the product in the utilization stage and the options and
possibility of disposal including recycling. What the expected
period of use is and the possibility for product replacement.
 Marketing and Branding
• Branding is a key marketing tool • Marketing fibres:
• Gore-Tex, Nike, Teflon
• Vital for success in global economy • Creating demand in the first
• A brand must: place
– Offer value above that of an non branded • Developing websites
product
• Develop new end uses
– Backed by strong global marketing and
promotion • Advertising campaign
– Supported by up to date manufacture and
distribution systems
• Labelling: recognisable
– Be re positioned in market to take account • Advertising:
of changing consumer needs
Protects product – Hard sell- simple+ direct,
Branding fibres: unique selling proposition
– Speeds up market aceptance – Soft sell- image+ style,
– Develops reputation positive product image,
– Focus for information
– Highly visible through advertising
brand loyalty
 Marketing Mix
Effective marketing plans begin with knowing the
customer. Then, they adapt the 4 Ps to customer
needs.
Product Purdue University says that the 4 Ps are marketing
essentials. The product must meet customer needs,
price indicates value, place means easy product
access and promotion uses advertising channels, via
online and traditional media, to inform, increase
Promotion Price awareness and attract customers.
Effective marketing plans begin with knowing the
customer. Then, they adapt the 4 Ps to customer
needs.
Purdue University says that the 4 Ps are marketing
Place essentials. The product must meet customer needs,
price indicates value, place means easy product
access and promotion uses advertising channels, via
online and traditional media, to inform, increase
awareness and attract customers.
 Advertising Media
Media Type Advantages Disadvantages

Press Details Need to be timed to

Use reply coupons for match marketing
direct response campaign
Not always read by
consumers
Television Large audience Short time span
Show product being used Viewers may not be in
target market
Posters and billboards Cheap Low impact form
Widely available Complicated to buy
Liable to damage
Radio Target geographical areas Low audience numbers
 Retail Markets
• High end retailers
• Designers diffusion lines
• Premium brands
• Limited editions
• Budget ranges
• Standard fashion ranges
 Points of Sale
• Internet sites: Offer many different types of products, products may be sold at a discount, goods are
delivered, can shop at any time, special offers/discounts via e-mail, shop from home, search options make
it easy to find product by colour/type, virtual changing rooms. Cannot see or try on products before
purchase, may need to wait in for delivery or collect from local depot, usually additional delivery costs,
may be difficult to return unsuitable goods, need to have a credit card, may be subjected to internet fraud.

• Boutiques: Offer high fashion and individual products, may specialise in certain products, offer personal
service, maybe able to undertake alterations, often high quality/high prices. Will probably be more
expensive than other outlets, may carry only limited size and style ranges, small runs of products may not
be able to be re-ordered, will not have additional facilities, often a destination shop with no others nearby
with which to make comparisons, may be pushy sales staff.
• Chain stores: Offer many different types of products, may be cheaper than other outlets, some have
additional facilities such as restaurants, may offer loyalty cards, credit cards, often exchange without asking
questions, cater for a wide range of ages and sizes, usually good quality goods, many branches in different
towns. May not offer much individuality, especially as ranges will be sold all over the country, styles may
not be high fashion, can be expensive in relation to quality.
• Market stalls: Goods sold at reduced prices, may be possible to buy vintage or specialist or locally made
products at certain markets, may be able to negotiate on price, often a pleasant atmosphere, can compare
with other nearby stalls. May not be possible to try clothes on before buying, may be damaged or seconds,
may not be easy to return/exchange unsuitable goods, goods may be counterfeit, goods may not be
displayed well, may be unpleasant in wet or windy conditions.
 Role of New Technology in Marketing
• Virtual Changing Rooms- reduce returns and promote sales. Users get
an idea of how a garment will fit and which size will be the best to buy.
Will increase consumers trust, build brand loyalty and increase shopping
efficiency. Put in measurements and selects a few general descriptions,
the cybershopper selects garments and tries them on the model
• e-Commerce-is the buying and selling of goods and services, or the
transmitting of funds or data, over an electronic network, primarily the
Internet.
• Multi national textiles companies- Woolmark, Nike, Gore-Tex
• Meeting requirements through:
• Socio-economic groups- affordable clothing for the market
• Demographic trends- age, gender and income
• Niche marketing- the product features aimed at satisfying specific market needs, as
well as the price range, production quality and the demographics that is intended to
impact.
 Role of Professionals
Buyer Merchandiser Fabric and Garment Visual
Technologist Merchandiser
Analysing consumer Ensure products Initial costing of the Meet deadlines
buying patterns appear in the right product Working within a
Reviewing store at the correct Evaluation of space and budget
time and in the
performance appropriate quantities prototypes Making
indicators Working closely with Pattern grading presentations to
Plans for stock buying teams to Technical clients
levels accurately forecast specifications Discussing a brief
Reacting to changes trends, plan stock Monitoring with a client and
in demand and levels and monitor production indentifying key
logistics performance messages they want
Meeting suppliers Set prices to maximise to convey
profits
and negotiating Manage the Design ideas
terms of contracts performance of Overseeing
Maintaining ranges, planning production
relationships with promotions, Source props
suppliers markdowns as Eye catching
necessary displays
 Role of Designer
• Forecasting fabrics, colours, silhouettes, trends
• Range planning depending on the product type
• Staple products-school uniform, unchanged
• Classic products- jeans, variations may be introduced
• Styled products- frequent changes
• Fashion products- very frequent changes
• Designing with the use of CAD
• Pattern making including the use of CAD/CAM
• Sample making
• Costing of the product
• Evaluation of prototypes
• Pattern grading
• Technical specifications
• Monitoring production
 Product Classification
• Menswear, women's wear, children's wear,
work wear, sportswear, accessories, foundation
wear, leisure wear, formal dress
• Furnishing textiles for domestic and public
places
• Industrial textiles- specific requirements,
transport and aerospace industries
• Performance textiles- outdoor or sport pursuits
 Health and Safety
• COSHH- Control of Substance Hazardous to Health
– Loose materials, oily fibres, high piles of stock, carpet making -fire
– Store should be well lit, prohibit eating and drinking
– Check machines work
• BSI standards for product testing
• CE- manufacture meets essential safety requirements set up by a directive of the
European Commission. Used on products sold across Europe that are required to meet
common EC legal, technical and safety standards
• Kitemark- the product has been independently tested under controlled conditions to
confirm that is complies with a relevant British Standard. Assures the customer that
the product is safe and reliable
• Lionmark- The Lion Mark indicates that the toy has been made by a member of the
British Toy & Hobby Association and therefore denotes the member’s commitment to
adhere to the BTHA Code of Practice which includes rules covering ethical and safe
manufacture of toys, a ban on any counterfeit goods, an assurance to market
responsibly, a commitment to improving sustainability and a desire to promote the
value of all play.
 Environmental Concerns
• Natural resources: using up non renewable resources could mean:
• Switching the focus from ‘buying because you want it’ to ‘buying because you need it’
• Developing household goods that could be rented
• Paying for the repair, servicing of the product
• Returning the product to the manufacture to be recycled
• Worry about synthetic fibres
• Organic production: Envirowise: waste minimisation, cost effective and cleaner technology
• Conservation: the protection of the natural and urban environment for use by future
generations. Sustainable development
• Waste: reducing waste reducing the consumption of raw materials, water, energy and lowers the
cost for waste treatment and disposal. Waste in household sector-4/10%
• Pollution: ‘skip and tip’, EPA- legislation against polluting water, air and land. ‘polluter pays’
• Recycling: Environmental Management systems(EMS), reduces waste, saves cost e.g.
Moorhouse and Brook. Waste- re-spinning of natural fibres, felt manufacture, toys, fertiliser,
geotextiles. Only 5% of waste is recycled.
• Green technology: Bio-wise supports and advices companies to develop sustainable practices
that make use of biotechnology(use of enzymes to create industrial products), bio stoning, bio
polishing
• Bio-fibres, produced by fermentation of waste or low value materials such as straw
 CAM
• Digital printing-uses inkjet technology to print designs,
developed using a CAD system, directly onto a pre-treated fabric
• Flat knitting-narrow width machines, ‘WholeGarment’
technology, entire sweater could be made without the need for
sewing or linking, reduces dependence on sewing and manual
labour
• Circular knitting- needles arranged in a circle with a succession
of yarns feeding the needles in one direction. High tech pattern
prep systems deal with patterning and provide feedback about
production. Work stations include a PC – pattern development
systems data monitoring systems, programmable yarn feeders
and precise tension control ensure speedy production
 CAM
• Weaving- high speed weaving systems are precision controlled by microprocessors and
monitored 100% throughout production
• Fabric cutting and spreading are the only fully automated operations
• A pattern making, grading and sampling system can print a fabric sample length, cut a pattern
using digital information and make a sample garment in under 8 hours
• A new pattern can be drawn by hand and put on a digitising table to plot each pattern into a
database.
• A basic block must be digitised and stored in a database, digitising converts a flat pattern into
a series of number co-ordinates that are electronically transferred
• The digitised block is displayed on a screen and can be modified to develop a new garment
style
• Darts can be altered, parts can be moved, rotated and resized. The new pattern is then
graded. A lay plan is then produced and stored in the computer
• Robotics- an automated cut-piece pick-and-place device can be used to automatically off load
the cutting table, sort and shrink wrap the cut piles ready to go to the sewing machine
• Overhead conveyor systems- e.g. GERBERmover, monitor the movement of cut garment
pieces around a factory, capability to locate and track individual pieces, as well as re-allocate
work in the light of changing styles, resources and work content
• Hanging garment storage and distribution
 CAD
• Manipulate images on the screen
• Line styles and colour schemes can be adjusted
• Can create 3D designs on the screen- ‘texture mapping’
• Re-colour and modify existing fabrics
• Create a range of colour ways, matching colour palettes exchange data
with customers
• ‘map’ designs over photographs
• Sketch at any scale
• Can create specifications sheets- front, back, side views, design, styling,
construction details, dimensions, sizes and tolerances
• Design woven fabrics- designing warp and weft sequences. Create woven
designs from an image using different weave constructions
• Whole garments can be created using a range of stitches on a graph
Industrial and Commercial Practice
• EDI(Electronic Data Interchange)-the transfer of structured data by agreed
message standards, from one computer to another by electronic means. Message
standard, translation software, method of transmitting data.
• Barcoding(part of EDI)- readers are attached to work stations to monitor products
progress, operators performance and effectiveness of manufacturing system
• EDP(Electronic Data Processing)- use of automated methods to process
commercial data
• CAA(Computer Aided Administration)-data can be collected and accessed in a
quick and effective way to assist manufacturing or information management e.g.
stock control
• PPC(Production Planning and Control)-responsible for allocating work in the most
profitable way, providing information to other departments about progress of
orders, adjusting production schedules. PDM can manage and monitor all
information needed to manufacture a product
• CIM(Computer Integrated Manufacture)-integrate the use of all the different
functions of computers including CAM/CAD to enable efficient, fast and cost
effective textile manufacture.
Textile manufacturing are
Global Production
increasingly under economic
pressure to manufacture
‘offshore’ in countries where Advantages Disadvantages
labour costs are lower • Environmental damage
• Provides employment
and higher living • Provide low level skill jobs
KEY WORDS:
Contracted goods: Production of standards • Top jobs are filled by executives
goods by one firm, under the label from the developed world
• Improves expertise of
or brand of another firm. • May a company’s profits are
Sub-contractor: a person who is local workforce
exported back to the developed
hired by a general contractor to • Brings foreign currency
perform a specific task as part of world
the overall project into a country to • Cut corners concerning health
Wholesaler: intermediary entity improve their balance and safety and pollution
in the distribution channel that of payments
buys in bulk and sells to resellers • Companies can exert political
rather than to consumers. • Widens a country pressure
Cut, make and trim(CMT): the economic base • May mean raw materials are
supplier keeps the development
• Enables transfer of exported or not processed
of new styles and the materials
under his control, and outsources technology locally
the labor-intensive jobs (cut, • Goods are exported and are too
make/sew, trim / final QC, and expensive for the local people
pack).
 Product Maintenance
• Testing for colour fastness-resistance to colour loss
during the manufacturing process and in use. ISO 105
evaluates the resistance of colour to rubbing, dye should
be fast to wet or dry rubbing
• Testing for wash fastness- resistance to washing
determines the wash program that can be used. Dyes
are expected to be fast to the vigorous wash programs
at 60 degrees
• Testing for light fastness- resistance of colours to fading,
changing shade or darkening under the influence of light
HLCC Labelling
 Health and Safety
• Risk assessment: means identifying
Risk Assessment Code of Practice BS
the risks to the health and safety of 1996
people and to the environment
• Health and safety related to • Safety requirements for
production: responsibility of children's clothing:
employers and employees, strict • No cords or ribbon
rules based on the Health and
Safety at Work Act of 1974 accessible to a child's
• Role of HSE: It is the body mouth
responsible for the encouragement, • No cords in hoods
regulation and enforcement of
workplace health, safety and • No zips in trousers of boys
welfare, and for research into under 5 years old
occupational risks in England and • Nightwear cannot be
Wales and Scotland.
flammable
 Texturing Processes
• False twist: a twisting operation applied at an intermediate position on
a yarn so that no net twist can be inserted, as distinct from twisting at
the end of a yarn where real twist is inserted.
• Knit de knit: crimped yarn is made by knitting the yarn into a fabric, and
then heat-setting the fabric. The yarn is then unravelled from the fabric
and used in this permanently crinkled form.
• Air jet: uses a cold air-stream to produce bulked yarns of low
extensibility, Air textured yarn is very bulky with permanent crimps and
loops
• Stretch yarn: frequently continuous-filament man-made yarns that are
very tightly twisted, heat-set, and then untwisted, producing a spiral
crimp giving a springy character.
• Bulked yarn: blending staple fibres of different shrinkage which can be
wet/heat finished to make the resultant yarn thicker and softer
• Formation of fancy yarns: special spinning processes to give
 Spinning
Wet Dry Melt
Viscose and acrylics Acetate and acrylics Nylon and polyester

Polymer solution is The polymer solution is The molten polymer is

extruded into a chemical extruded into a stream of extruded into a stream of
fluid, which solidifies the warm air. This evaporates cold air, which cools and
filaments the solvent and solidifies solidifies the filaments
the filaments
 Dyeing
• Preparation: greige
• Desizing- size is a starch which is applied to warp yarns before they are woven into fabrics, used for
strength, removed by washing
• Scouring- removes fatty and waxy impurities which prevent the fabric from being ‘wetted’. Cotton-
boiling in caustic soda, wool-detergents
• Bleaching- makes the fabric evenly white before colour is added
• Batch dyeing:
• Jig-used for fabrics which cant be creased, two roller which sit above the dye bath, fabric is wound
for one roller to the other so it passes through the dye bath, direction is reversed, back and forth
until depth of colour is achieved
• Winch- fabrics, fabric is sewn so it forms a band, it is passed round and round over the winch,
through the dye liquor
• Jet-similar to winch, except fabric is moved by a high pressure jet
• Continuous dyeing: fabric is passed through a small pad bath which contains dye.
Then squeezed between rubber rollers which ensure dye penetrates, fabric moves
to fixing machine, which fixes the dye in fibre
• Semi continuous: dye put on to fabric like continuous, fabric is then wound up on
to batching roller, dye can be fixed onto fabric there or in a separate process
• Resist dyeing: tie-dyeing, batik
 Dyes
• Direct(cellulosic fibres)-soluble in water and used for dyeing viscose,
cotton and modal. Fast to light but poor wash fastness
• Vat(cellulosic)-excellent light and wash fastness, it has to be
converted into a soluble form by removing oxygen, once the dye is in
the fibre, it is converted back which make the molecules to big to get
out of the fibres
• Reactive(cellulosic and protein)-water soluble that forms a strong
chemical bond with fibres, bright colours
• Disperse(acetate, polyamide, acrylic, polyester)-dyes fibres with
hydrophobic properties, insoluble in water, applied in the form of a
fine aqueous dispersion. Chemical bonds
• Acid(protein fibres)-soluble in water and applied in a acidic dye
bath, good light fastness
 Dyeing Stages
• Dope- dye is added to the spinning solution of
man made fibres prior to spinning the fibre
• Stock-fibres are dyed in a loose form
• Skeins-dyeing the yarns
• Piece goods-woven or knitted fabrics are dyed
• Garments-made up garments are dye,
manufactures can dye to consumer demands
and trends
 Printing Methods
• Direct: design printed directly onto fabric
• Discharge: dyed fabric is printed with a paste containing chemicals which destroy
the dye
• Transfer: design is printed on to a special type of paper which is wound on to a
roller and placed in position in the machine. The fabric and paper are brought
together in a dry heat press which transfers the design aka sublimation
• Resist: fabric is printed with chemicals which prevents dye being taken up in the
chemically treated areas
• Hand: uses metal or wooden blocks, dye is applied and stamped onto fabric
• Roller: uses engraved rollers to print the designs
• Rotary Screen: the screen is a seamless metal mesh roller, a screen is prepared for
each colour in the design. All of the rollers are fitted on to printing machine, the
squeegee is fitted through the centre of the roller and dye is fed through
• Digital: inkjet to print CAD designs directly onto fabric using special printing inks
• Flat bed: fabric on a conveyor, screen lowered on to fabric, each screen prints a
different colour, a squeegee move across the screen pressing the paste through the
mesh
 Finishing
Intermediate Mechanical Chemical

•Fixation •Raising-fabric passes through rollers •Water repellence-

with wire brushes that lifts fibres to
•Washing form a nap-warm, and soft
fluorochemical resin
•Drying •Calendaring-ironing •Stain resist-
•Heat setting- •Embossing-engraved calendar fluorochemical resin
thermoplastic fabrics, can rollers •Flame
•Pleating- heat setting
be set in permanent •Shrinking-whereby the fabric is resist-chlorine/phospho
pleats forced to shrink width and/or rus finish, Rosco flamex
lengthwise, creates a fabric in which •Antistatic
any residual tendency to shrink after
subsequent laundering is minimal. •Mothproofing-
•Beetling-pounding to give a flat chemicals that make
lustrous effect fibres inedible
•Stone washing-gives fabric a rough •Anti pilling
look
•Sand –removes stiffness •Rot proofing
•Laser cutting •Anti felting
•Hygienic
 Finishing
Laminating Coating
• Combine two or more layers • The coating polymer can be
of different materials applied directly onto the
• Bonded together by an fabric or carried on transfer
adhesive or by a paper
thermoplastic property of • The is followed by fixing in a
one or both materials curing oven
• Gore-Tex can be laminated • Imitation leather and PVC
on to any other fabric coated cottons
 New Developments
• Reflective finishes- miniature reflectors can be imbedded into a
fabric and reflect on coming light, in a way that illuminates the full
silhouette
• Photo-chromic dyes- change colour when exposed to UV light
• Anti-bacterial finishes are applied to the fabric surface to slow
down the growth of bacteria. They control odours in sports shoes
and reduce infection in medical products.
• Biological finishes use natural enzymes to change a fabric's
appearance. Bio-stoning gives a stone-washed finish to denim
fabrics.
• ZANO-UV-absorbers for fabrics: protects fabrics from degradation,
protects against sunburn of wearer. ZANO is a fungistat
 Section System
• This is a development of the making through system, with the difference that the
operators specialise in one major component and sew it from beginning to end. For
example, an operator specialising in fronts would assemble the front, set the pockets,
etc. and perform all the operations required to finish that particular component. The
sewing room would have a number of sections, each containing versatile operators
capable of performing all the operations required for a specific component. The sections
are built according to the average garment produced. These could include:
• Pre-assembling (the preparation of small parts)
• Front making
• Back making
• Main assembly (closing, setting collars and sleeves, etc)
• Lining making
• Setting linings
• Finishing operations (buttonholes, blind-stitching, etc)
• The section system is a very efficient system for producing a variety of styles in
reasonable quantities. A diagram may be used to illustrate layout.
 UPS
• A UPS is an advanced clothing manufacturing system, developed from an older mechanical system, in
which a single garment is progressed through a sequence of operations.
• Using a unit production system, a garment is automatically transported via a computer-controlled
overhead hanging system, which has been ergonomically designed to reduce the amount of handling
of the garment.
• The computerised system is used to plan, control and direct the flow of work through a manufacturing
system. The unit of production is the complete product which is taken automatically from one work
station to the next.
• The rate of production is pre-determined and the computer sets the speed at which sections of the
product are taken to the operator. All the parts required to make a single product are loaded onto a
hanging carrier. The section of the product (eg back, front, pocket) is brought on the carrier by an
overhead conveyor as close to the operator as possible, reducing the amount of movement needed to
position the item to be stitched.
• Some operations can be carried out without removing parts from the hanger. Different operations are
carried out at individual workstations; when complete the operator presses a button and the carrier
moves to the next operation.
• Each garment is tracked within the system and any problem with QC can be traced back to the
operator to be corrected. The system is cost and time-efficient; it allows manufacturers to respond
quickly to market demands and as many as 40 different styles can be manufactured at one time, labour
costs are reduced because there is no handling of bundles, any problems are immediately obvious and
not hidden in bundles, it provides high levels of quality and garments are hung at each stage of
manufacture, space in the factory is used more effectively, and the total work load of the factory can
be balanced efficiently. But the systems are expensive to install and require specialist training for
 Progressive Bundle System
• Very large quantities of products are made over and over again in assembly line production. The
garments are gradually assembled as they move through successive sub-assembly and main assembly
operations in bundle form. Machines are in continuous use for long periods of time so they are very
specialised and expensive. The machinery and the operator skills are very specific for the job in hand. A
number of operatives work on the production line and each does one part of the manufacture before
passing the product to the next person who does a different job. Workers become skilled at doing one
part of the manufacture but may need to be re-trained to do other types of work. This system enables
them to make identical products very quickly but can be very boring for the workers. The system reduces
time and costs but changing the line to make a different product can take a long time. This method is not
usually used for high fashion clothing as styles change often. Some factories may specialise in products
which don’t change often, eg jeans. The system layout involves a work store to be positioned at the start
and end of every section; these buffers are used to store work received from a preceding operation, and
to hold work completed by that section. Because of these work stores or buffers, each section is not
directly dependent on the preceding section, but can absorb slight variations in output via the stocks.
• The progressive bundle system, while being somewhat cumbersome in operation and requiring large
quantities of work in progress, is possibly one of the most stable systems as regards output. Unless there
is serious absenteeism or prolonged special machine breakdown, most of the usual holdups can be
absorbed because of the amounts of work in progress. Balancing and the changeover to new styles can
also be simplified, due to the amount of work held in reserve. When properly managed, the progressive
bundle system is versatile and efficient.
 Production Planning and Control System
• Implementing an effective PPC system helps manufacturers remain competitive in the ever changing
fashion environment. The current market requires more styles, smaller orders, increased product
complexity and much shorter lead times. An effective system will allow production to plan movements
between warehouse to manufacture and to the distribution streams involved. Production can be
planned in a global environment.
• Advantages of this computerised system include:
• Improved use of available capacity and ability to constantly monitor flow of production. Improved 'on
time' materials and components availability and supply. Fewer production stoppages and lower excess
costs due to 'waiting time'. Improved control of 'Work In Progress’ hence reduced use of overtime to
solve problems. Improved production performance therefore lower air freight and late delivery
penalties. Ability to respond quickly when requirements change. Alternative planning solutions can be
implemented. Reduction in lead times through improved control. Central storage of all information in a
single place to allow improved decision making. More efficient planning of processes and machine
requirements. This is particularly useful in businesses with multiple manufacturing sites. It provides
visibility of all orders and their status and provides the planner with a mechanism that can be used to
effectively manage free capacity and the allocation of orders at the most appropriate factory/supplier.
Efficient planning for style change over. To track orders throughout supply chain, to deal quickly with
transport and delivery issues.
• Disadvantages:
• There are few disadvantages as there are obvious commercial gains. The cost of the system and the
need for trained personnel and for constant upgrading. The need to be compatible with all suppliers in
the chain for greatest efficiency.
 JIT
• JIT manufacture is highly dependent on the use of CAD/CAM and allows manufacturers to respond
quickly when fashions change as they can be more flexible in their working practice. This is also
referred to as Quick Response manufacture. Many manufacturing companies operate as outwork
factories and make garments, from the production pattern to the finished product, for many different
retailers. This is because they have invested in new technology, which small companies cannot afford,
and they need to have a constant throughput of work in order to make it pay. The use of automated
manufacturing processes ensures that products are made quickly and to a consistent standard. Little
stock is kept in warehouses - the aim is to get the products to the shops as soon as possible and as they
are needed – this is JIT (Just In Time) stock management.
• Many large retailers have centralised storage depots where goods are received and dispatched straight
away to the shops without being stored. The whole process is controlled electronically using the
information on the barcode labels. This means that money is saved on warehouse space, and wages for
workers as the products are not being continually handled so fewer operatives are needed. Retailers
receive new supplies of goods as and when they need them, and they are delivered ready to go on the
shop floor. Products which have ceased to be popular will not be re-ordered reducing waste and thus
costs.
• Electronic communication allows the factories to be anywhere in the world. Many of the factories are
huge, with rolls of fabric delivered to the cutting room where it goes straight on to the cutting tables.
Once cut, the bundles of cut pieces are distributed to the machinists, sewn together and delivered to
the retail outlet within a matter of hours.
 QRM
• Rapid transfer of information among all parts of the
production chain.
• QR depends on the use of electronic point of sale tills
(EPOS)
• These send product sales information to the manufacture
• Reduces cost keeping stock
• Faster productivity and efficiency
• Retained orders from retailers, through product reliability
and improved delivery performance
• Fast changeover for new styles
 Quality Control Systems
• QA is the over arching system that assures quality across the whole organisation.
• ‘Quality cannot be inspected into a garment; it must be manufactured into it.’ QA is much wider than QC; it is about a
company’s commitment to quality at every stage of the design and manufacture process, including training of the workforce
and the way in which problems are dealt with. It is about getting things right first time, and every member of staff is responsible
for producing quality. BSI lays down standards for QA systems. Companies wishing to register for approved status must provide
documented evidence of their Quality System and undergo regular inspections by BSI inspectors to ensure that the standards
are being maintained. The general aim of QA is to decrease dependence on inspection as a means of achieving quality and to
reduce the need to Inspect all garments, by building quality into the garment in the first place, ie moving away from a reactive
system.
• QA includes:
• TQM – Total quality management systems, Quality circles and quality departments, Staff training, Quality from design to
despatch. Quality Control systems such as: System 1: the output model where the reject rate is high and an extensive repair
system support this. System 2: Manufacturing quality rather than relying on inspections. Defects are traced back to the
production processes and then eliminated (possible amendments or replacement of machines and the training of operators),
use of Total Quality Control where standards of quality are set throughout all relevant areas of an organisation and throughout
the supply chain. System 3: Company-wide quality control requires the commitment of individuals in all departments, not just
in production.
• A quality control cycle includes: Studying the customer requirements, satisfactory design, fabric specification, garment
specification, manufacturing specification, meeting design requirements, meeting standards, inspecting garments, agreed
tolerances, instructions, user experience and feedback, the designer and quality control.
• Implications for the manufacturer could include: The cost of quality, in the form of implementing systems, staff training, cost
of QA/QC departments, manufacturing throughput times being slowed down due to inspections but this is countered by quality
products, brand reputation and product reliability, high levels of customer satisfaction. If there is no conformance to quality,
savings in running a quality system would be made but this would allow the possibility of faulty products, lost reputation,
reliability and consumer sales.