Physiology:

The science that is concerned with the function

of the living organism and its parts, and of
the physical and chemical processes involved

• It is the study of how the body and its parts

work or function.
• It has many subdivisions, e.g.
neurophysiology, cardiac physiology, etc.
 Homeostasis

• Describes the ability of the body to maintain

relatively stable internal conditions even
though the outside world is continuously
changing.
• In general ,the body is in homeostasis when
its needs are being adequately met and its
organs are functioning smoothly.
• Virtually every organ plays a role in
maintaining the constancy of the internal
environment.
 A Recurrent Theme:
Homeostasis
The maintenance of a stable
Internal environment

Why do we need a stable,

internal environment?
• Prevent denaturation of proteins
• To keep cells under optimum
conditions for function and survival
• It’s all about the plasma!
3
• Adequate blood levels of vital nutrients must be continuously
present.

• The heart activity and blood pressure must be constantly

monitored and adjusted so that the blood is propelled with
adequate force to reach all the body tissues.

• Additionally, wastes must not be allowed to accumulate and

body temperature must be precisely controlled.
Body Fluid Compartments
• Intracellular Fluid (ICF) comprises 2/3 of the body's water.
• If your body has 60% water, ICF is about 40% of your weight
• Extracellular Fluid (ECF) is the remaining 1/3 of your body's
water.
• ECF is about 20% of your weight.
• The ECF is further subdivided into three sub compartments
• Interstitial Fluid (ISF) surrounds the cells, but does not circulate.
It comprises about 3/4 of the ECF.
• Plasma circulates as the extracellular component of blood. It
makes up about 1/4 of the ECF.
• Transcellular fluid is a set of fluids that are outside of the normal
compartments. These 1-2 liters of fluid make up the CSF,
Digestive Juices, Mucus, etc
5
 Key Terms
• Variable- anything that changes and can be measured (ex.
temp, pH, BP, [Na+], plasma glucose)

• Set-point-value that is optimal

• Deviation-a change from set point

• Correction- compensation-how much depends on how great

the deviation is!

6
 Homeostatic control mechanisms
Communication within the body is essential for homeostasis and
this is accomplished by the nervous and endocrine systems.
The homeostatic control mechanisms are formed of 3
components receptor , control center and effector
The receptor :
It detects or monitor the changes in the environment and sends
information to the control center.
The changes in the environment is called the stimulus .
The control center :
Receives information from the receptor , It analyzes the
information it receives and determine the appropriate response
and send orders to the effector
The effector :
Which produces the response
 Feedback mechanisms

The homeostatic control mechanisms are 2 types :

1-Negative feedback:

In such system, the net effect of the response to the stimulus is to shut off

the original stimulus or reduce its intensity. Most of the homeostatic

control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms e.g. : regulation

of body temperature , heart rate and blood pressure

 Negative Feedback-promotes stability
1. When the variable deviates from set-point, the sensor
detects the deviation.
2. The input signal is compared to the set-point, forming
a “difference signal” (deviation).
3. A preprogrammed correction is triggered (That’s the
physiology! Understanding how a system corrects!)
4. The output signal activates an effector mechanism. In
NEG feedback: the correction is opposite in direction
to the deviation!
5. Result: Returns the variable toward setpoint

Dev Corr
Setpoint
9
2-Positive feedback mechanism:
In such system, the net effect is to increase the original stimulus. This
mechanism is less common.

e.g. : blood clotting and birth of baby

Positive Feedback promotes a
change in one direction, instability,
disease

• Deviation from the setpoint

• Correction
• Result???
• Further deviation from the
setpoint!

So, in which situations are we wired to use positive

feedback?
To amplify an effect rapidly…. (avalanche!)

14
 Homeostatic imbalance

Means disturbance in homeostasis.

It usually occurs due to inappropriate functioning body organ(s) .

Most of the illnesses are due to homeostatic imbalance.

As we age, our body organs become less efficient, and our internal
conditions become less and less stable. These events place us at a greater
risk for illness and produce the changes we associate with aging
Functions the human must perform to
maintain life
Digestion.

Metabolism

Excretion

Reproduction

Growth

Movement

responsiveness
How do all the organ systems help maintain
homeostasis of the extracellular fluid?

• Kidneys
• Lungs
• Heart
• Liver
• Gastrointestinal (GI) system
• Musculoskeletal system
• Nervous system
• Endocrine (hormone) system

17
Kidneys
• The kidneys filter, secrete, and excrete substances that need to
be removed or reabsorbed.
• They are the crankiest organs in the body.
• They have a sensor for anything that goes wrong.
• If they don’t have enough blood (reduced perfusion), they sense
that the O2 levels have dropped (hypoxia), and they also detect
that the blood vessels are not stretching.
• If this condition were to continue, the O2 levels would become
completely depleted (anoxia), cellular metabolism would shut
down, and tissue would die.
• If the kidney is not happy with current conditions (such as low
O2 levels), it triggers a series of events, including a cascade of
hormones, erythropoesis (production of new red blood cells),
and an increase in the amount of salt retained.
18
 Lungs and Heart
• The respiratory system is best friends with the kidneys. Both
maintain the acid-base balance in plasma. Kidneys get rid of liquid
acids. Lungs get rid of acid gases.

• The heart generates the force to eject the blood. Arteries expand
and recoil and put pressure on the flow of blood, maintaining the
driving force to push the blood forward, so the blood reaches
capillaries and leaks out.

19
Liver

• The liver detoxifies blood, removes dead or dying RBCs.

• It has over 500 functions.
• Why does an alcoholic have a big belly (ascites) from
liver damage? The liver is supposed to make albumin (a
protein), but since the hepatocytes (liver cells) are
damaged, they can’t make albumin.
• Albumin is essential for maintaining the osmotic
pressure needed for proper distribution of body fluids
between intravascular compartments and body tissues.
• Without albumin, water accumulates in abdominal
cavity.
20
 GI and Musculoskeletal

• The GI system absorbs food, gets rid of waste.

• Musculoskeletal system participates in maintaining homeostasis of

the extracellular fluid during shivering, sweating, pumping the
veins, and muscles are needed to physically put food in your mouth
and to eliminate waste.

21
 Nervous and Endocrine

• The Nervous and endocrine systems communicate between

themselves and with other systems, and they coordinate
their actions.
• This coordination helps to regulate and modulate their
activity.
• The endocrine system acts indirectly, the nervous system
acts directly.
• Both use a chemical.
• Neurotransmitters and hormones are chemicals.
• Cells need functional receptors to respond to these
chemicals.
• Diabetics may have receptors but they do not bind insulin
as much as they should.
22
Nervous and Endocrine
• The nervous and endocrine systems communicate to the same effectors
(send messages to the same cells).
• The nervous and endocrine systems can either work together
(synergistic) or be antagonistic to each other.
• Nerves work faster than hormones but do not last as long. Hormones
are slow but their effects last longer.
• For example, the nerves can only provide short-term blood pressure
control. There are pressure receptors (Baroreceptors) in the aortic arch
and carotid artery. When a greater volume of blood is ejected from the
heart, the arteries stretch more. The greater the stretch, the faster the
action potential (nerve signal) is sent from the Baroreceptors to the
brain. The brain evaluates this information, and sends a message
through the Vagus nerve to the heart, telling the heart to slow down, so
the very next beat is less forceful.

23
 Proper function requires
Regulation
• Regulation exists at all levels of organization
• Regulation within cells: genes, operons,
repressor proteins, transcription factors, membrane
transport
• Regulation within tissues
• Regulation within and between Organs:
nervous and endocrine systems
24
 Nervous vs. Endocrine Systems

• Glands/ Hormones
• Neurons/neurotransmitters
• Exposure throughout body
• Electrical impulses and • Sometimes general effects,
neurotransmitters sometimes specific
• Synapses on specific target • Slower- seconds to days
cells • Effects continue long after
• Local effects stimulus stops
• Quick (1-10 msec).
• Stops quickly when stimulus
stops

25
 The Nervous System
• Sensor- detects state of

body and surroundings

• Integration Centers-

brain and spinal cord

• Effector-motor output

and involves voluntary

and involuntary

effectors

26
• The peripheral nervous system (nerves outside of the brain and spinal
cord) needs a way to sense problems, convey that info into CNS.
• Action potentials (nerve signals) going into the CNS are afferent fibers.
• Outgoing action potentials are efferent; they elicit a response from
effectors organs.
• Many feedback systems are redundant, just to be sure the job gets done.

27