Statistics - 1

Presentation of Data

Tabulation
The process of placing classified data into tabular form is known as tabulation. A table is a symmetric arrangement of statistical data in rows and columns. Rows are horizontal arrangements whereas columns are vertical arrangements. It may be simple, double or complex depending upon the type of

Construction of a Statistical Table

A statistical table has at least four major parts and some other minor parts.
The Title The Box Head (column captions) The Stub (row captions) The Body Prefatory Notes Foots Notes Source Notes

Construction of a Statistical Table

Frequency Distribution
A frequency distribution is a tabular arrangement of data into classes according to the size or magnitude along with corresponding class frequencies (the number of values fall in each class). The word 'frequency' means 'how often'.

Class Interval
The data is grouped into class intervals if the frequency table becomes too large to help us organise, interpret and analyse the data. The frequency of a class interval is the number of data values that fall in the range specified by the interval. The size of the class interval is often selected as 5, 10, 15 or 20 etc. Each class interval starts at a value that is a multiple of the size. For example, if the size of the class interval is 5, then the class intervals should start at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 etc. The class intervals will then be 0-4, 5-9, 10-14 etc.

Inclusive and Exclusive

Inclusive Class Interval: When the lower and the upper class limit is included, then it is an inclusive class interval. For example - 220 - 234, 235 - 249 ..... etc. are inclusive type of class intervals. Usually in the case of discrete variate, inclusive type of class intervals are used. Exclusive Class Interval: When the lower limit is included, but the upper limit is excluded, then it is an exclusive class interval. For example - 150 - 153, 153 156.....etc are exclusive type of class intervals. In the class interval 150 - 153, 150 is included but 153 is excluded. Usually in the case of continuous variate, exclusive type of class intervals are used.

Open Ended Classes and Class Limits

Open Ended Classes

Sometimes , frequency tables are formed in which a class has either no lower class limit or no upper class limit. Such a class is open end class.

Class Limits
Each class is described by two numbers. These no. are called class limits; the smaller no. is called the lower class limit and the larger no. is upper class limit.

Mid Point and Width of Class Interval

Mid Point of Class Interval - It is a value within a class interval, esp. its midpoint or the nearest integral value, used to represent the interval for computational convenience Width of Class Interval - is the difference between the lower endpoint of an interval and the lower endpoint of the next interval. Thus, if our study's continuous intervals are 0 to 4, 5 to 9, etc., the width of the first five intervals is 5.s

Frequency Density
Consider the below example: The frequency density is a the frequency of values divided by the class width of values.

Relative Frequency
The relative frequency density of the occurrence of an event is the score divided by the total number of observations. For example: If the lower extreme of the class you are measuring the density of is 15 and the upper extreme of the class you are measuring is 30, given a relative frequency of 0.0625, you would calculate the frequency density for this class to be: Relative frequency / (Upper extreme of class lower extreme of class) = density0.0625 / (30 15) = 0.0625 / 15 = 0.0041666.. That is: 0.00417 to 5 decimal places.

Univariate and Bivariate Tables

Some data has only one variable. For example, if I were to record the ages of all students in a school and graph my data, then there would only be one variable, the age of the students. This type of data is known as univariate data and it does not deal with relationships, but rather it is used to describe something. In this example univariate data is used to express the ages of the students in a school.

Univariate and Bivariate Tables

Bivariate data is data that involves two different variables whose values can change. Bivariate data deals with relationships between these two variables. The purpose of Bivariate data is to analyze and explain this relationship.

Rules for Constructing a Frequency Table

Determine the greatest and the smallest number in the raw data and find range ,i.e., the difference b/w the greatest and the smallest value Decide the no. o classes Determine the approximate class interval size by dividing the range by the desirable no. of classes

Rules for Constructing a Frequency Table

Decide what should be the lower class limit Find the upper class limit by adding the class interval size Describe the values in the raw data into classes and determine the no. of cases falling in each class i.e., class frequency

Diagrammatic Representation
Diagrams may be one dimensional or two dimensional. In one dimensional we have Bar Diagrams. In two dimensions we have pie diagram. Different Bar diagrams are simple bar diagram, component Bar diagram, subdivided Bar diagram, Percentage Bar diagram

Simple and Multiple Bar Diagram

Simple Bar Diagram

It

is drawn when items are to be compared with respect to a single characteristics. A rectangular bar is constructed with height proportional to the magnitude of the items. Example: Represent the following data regarding the yield per acre of paddy in Karnataka over the last five years.
Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Yield

20

22

25

27

30

Simple and Multiple Bar Diagram

Yield
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Yield

Example: Represent the following in a multiple bar diagram.

Revenue / Unit

Yr Cost of Manufacturing / Unit 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005

40 45 55

70 85 90

Simple and Multiple Bar Diagram

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 Cost of Manufacturing / Unit Revenue / Unit

20
10 0 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005

Component (Sub Divided) Bar Diagram

It is used when two or more characteristics are observed in a unit. Each bar is proportionately divided. Example: Represent the following with a suitable bar diagram

100% 90%

80%

Course

No of Students Sec A Sec B B.E 10 5 M.Tech 15 10 MBBS 10 15 B.Com 35 30 BBM 30 40 Total 100 100

70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Sec A No of Students Sec B Total BBM B.Com

MBBS
M.Tech B.E

Component Pie Diagram

Drawn when data have magnitudes for two or more components Circles with area proporitonal to magnitude are drawn to represent the total magnitude. Circles are divided into sectors according to the magnitude of the components. If T is the total magnitude and R is the magnitude of the component, the angle at the centre is given as

Component Pie Diagram

Example: Draw a pie diagram for the Monthly following data:

Items Food Rent Fuel Misc Total Expenses Prasad Krishna 2000 4000 1000 1500 500 1000 500 1500 4000 8000

The radii of the circles are

Component Pie Diagram

We draw two circles of radii 1.3cms and 1.8cms. Where 1cm = 50 units. The data is represented in angles

Items Monthly Expenses

Prasad Food Rent Fuel Misc Total Krishna 180 67.5 45 67.5 360

180 90 45 45 360

Component Pie Diagram

Prasad
500 500 2000 Food Rent Fuel Misc

1000

Krishna
1500

Food Rent

1000

4000

Fuel Misc

1500

Graphical Representation
Graphs are used mainly for frequency distributions. Some types of graphs: Histogram Frequency Polygon Frequency Curve Ogives [Cumulative Frequency Curves]

Histogram
The frequency distribution is represented by a set of rectangular bars with area proportional to class frequency. If the class intervals have equal width then the variable is taken along Xaxis and frequency along Yaxis and a rectangle is constructed.

Histogram

Example: Draw a histogram for the distribution of age as shown below

Age No of People 0-10 5 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 10 15 12 8

No of People
16 14

12
10 Age 8 6 4 2 0

0-10

10 20

20-30 Frequency

30-40

40-50

Histogram
In a histogram, we join the upper left corner of highest rectangle to the right adjacent rectangles left corner and right upper corner of the highest rectangle to the left adjacent rectangles right corner. From the intersecting point of these lines we draw a perpendicular to the X-axis. The X reading at that point gives the

Histogram

Example: Draw a histogram for the following data

The class intervals are not equal so: Divide the class interval into two equal class intervals. Calculate the adjusted frequencies by dividing the frequency of that class interval by 2

Histogram
Age Adjusted Frequenc y 5 10 10 0-10 10-20 20-30

30-40
40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90

15
15 15 12 8 8

Frequency Polygon
The mid values of class intervals are plotted against frequency of the class interval. These points are joined by straight lines. Consider the example used in the 1st problem of Histogram.

Frequency Polygon
Age No of People
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0-10 10 20 20-30 30-40 40-50

0-10 5

10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 10 15 12 8

Frequency Polygon

No of People

Frequency Curve
First we draw histogram for the given data. Then join the mid points of the rectangles by a smooth curve. Total area under frequency curve represents total frequency. They are the most useful form of frequency distribution.

Frequency Curve
Age No of People 0-10 5 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 10 15 12 8

Ogives

Less than ogive: Variables are taken along x-axis and less than cumulative frequencies are taken along Y-axis. Less than cumulative frequencies are plotted against upper limit of class interval and joined by a smooth curve. More than Ogive: More than cumulative frequencies are plotted against lower limit of class interval and joined by a smooth curve. From the meeting point of these two ogives if we draw a perpendicular to X-axis, the point where it meets X-axis gives Median of the distribution.

Ogives

Example: Construct an ogive from the data below and determine the median

Ogives