Introduction to Information and

Communication Technologies
Lecture # 2

Zaheer A. Gondal
Department of Computer Science
CUI Lahore Campus
[email protected]
The slides are adapted from the publisher’s material
Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow (Ch2)
Overview
This chapter covers:
How computers represent data and program instructions
How the CPU, memory, and other components located inside the
system unit are arranged, as well as the characteristics of the
components
How the CPU performs processing tasks
Strategies to speed up a computer today and to create faster
computers in the future

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Data and Program Representation
In order to be understood by a computer, data and
programs need to be represented appropriately
Coding systems: Used to represent data and
programs in a manner understood by the computer
Digital computers: Can only understand two states,
off and on (0 and 1)
Digital data representation:
The process of representing
data in digital form so it can be
understood by a computer

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Digital Data Representation
• Bit: The smallest unit of data that a binary
computer can recognize (a single 1 or 0)
Byte = 8 bits
Byte terminology used to express the
size of documents and other files,
programs, etc.
Prefixes are often used to express
larger quantities of bytes: kilobyte
(KB), megabyte (MB), gigabyte (GB),
terabyte (TB), etc.

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The Binary Numbering System
Numbering system: A way of representing numbers
 Decimal numbering system
Uses 10 symbols (0-9)
 Binary numbering system
Uses only two symbols (1 and 0) to represent all possible numbers
In both systems, the position of the digits determines the
power to which the base number (such as 10 or 2) is
raised

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The Binary Numbering System

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Coding Systems for Text-Based Data
 ASCII and EBCDIC
 ASCII (American Standard Code
for Information Interchange):
coding system traditionally used
with personal computers
 EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded
Decimal Interchange Code):
developed by IBM, primarily for
mainframe use

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Coding Systems for Text-Based Data

 Unicode: newer code (32

bits per character is
common); universal coding
standard designed to
represent text-based data
written in any ancient or
modern language
 Replacing ASCII as the
primary text-coding
system

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Coding Systems for Other Types of Data
Graphics (still images
such as photos or
drawings)
Bitmapped images: A variety of bit
depths are possible (4, 8, 24 bits)
More bits = more colors

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Coding Systems for Other Types of Data
Audio data: Must be in digital form in order
to be stored on or processed by a computer
 Often compressed when sent over the Internet
 MP3 files
Video data: Displayed using a collection of
frames, each frame contains a still image
 Amount of data can be substantial, but can be compressed

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Representing Programs: Machine Language
Machine language: Binary-based
language for representing computer
programs the computer can execute
directly
 Early programs were written in machine language.
 Today’s programs still need to be translated into
machine language in order to be understood by the
computer
Most programs are written in other
programming languages
 Language translators are used to translate the programs
into machine language

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Quick Quiz
1. Another way to say “one million bytes” is
a. one kilobyte
b. one gigabyte
c. one megabyte
2. True or False: MP3 files are stored using 0s
and 1s.
3. The _____________ numbering system is
used by computers to perform mathematical
computations.
Answers:
1) c; 2) True; 3) binary

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Inside the System Unit
System unit: The main case of a computer
 Houses the processing hardware for a computer
 Also contains storage devices, the power supply, and cooling fans
 Houses the CPU, memory, interfaces to connect to peripheral
devices (printers, etc), and other components such as CD/DVD
drives
 With a desktop computer, usually looks like a rectangular box

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Inside the System Unit

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The Motherboard
Computer chip: A very small pieces of silicon or other
semi-conducting material onto which integrated circuits
are embedded
Circuit board: A thin board containing computer chips
and other electronic components
Motherboard or system board: The main circuit board
inside the system unit
 All devices must connect to the motherboard
 External devices (monitors, keyboards, mice, printers) typically
connect by plugging into a port exposed through the exterior of the
system unit
 Wireless devices connect through a transceiver or wireless networking
technology (like Bluetooth)

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The CPU
Central processing unit (CPU): circuitry and components
packaged together and connected directly to the
motherboard
 Does the vast majority of processing for a computer
 Also called a processor; called a microprocessor when talking about
personal computesr
Dual-core CPU: Contains the processing components
(cores) of two separate processors on a single CPU
Quad-core CPU: Contains 4 cores

Often made by Intel or AMD

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The CPU

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The CPU

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Processing Speed
CPU clock speed: One measurement of processing speed
 Measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz)
 Higher CPU clock speed = more instructions processed per second
Alternate measure of processing speed is the number of
instructions a CPU can process per second
 Megaflops, gigaflops, teraflops
Other factors (CPU architecture, memory, bus speed,
amount of RAM, etc.) also affect the overall processing
speed of a computer

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Word Size and Cache Memory
Word size: The amount of data that a CPU can
manipulate at one time
 Typically 32 or 64 bits
Cache memory: Special group of very fast memory chips
located on or close to the CPU
 Level 1 is fastest, then Level 2, then Level 3
 More cache memory typically means faster processing
 Usually internal cache (built into the CPU)

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Memory
Memory refers to chip based storage
 Primary memory
 Secondary memory
 RAM (random access memory): Computer’s main
memory
 Consists of chips arrange on a circuit board called a memory
module plugged into the motherboard
 Stores essential parts of operating system, programs, and
data the computer is currently using
 Adequate RAM is needed to run programs
 Volatile: Contents of RAM is lost when the computer is shut
off
 Most personal computers use SD-RAM
 MRAM and PRAM: non-volatile RAM under development

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Memory

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Memory
Registers: High-speed memory built into the CPU; used
by the CPU
ROM (read-only memory): Non-volatile chips located
on the motherboard into which data or programs have
been permanently stored
 Retrieved by the computer when needed
Flash memory: Type of nonvolatile memory that can be
erased and reprogrammed
 Some flash memory chips are used by the computer
 Flash memory chips are also used in flash memory storage media

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Memory (Volatile vs Non-volatile)
Non-volatile memory is the
Volatile memory is the type
type of memory in which
of memory in which data is
data remains stored even if
lost as it is powered-off.
it is powered-off.

Contents of Non-volatile
Contents of Volatile memory
memory are stored
are stored temporarily.
permanently.

It is faster than non-volatile It is slower than volatile

memory. memory.

RAM(Random Access ROM(Read Only

Memory) is an example of Memory) is an example of
volatile memory. non-volatile memory.

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Expansion Slots, Expansion Cards, and
ExpressCards
Expansion slot: A location on the motherboard
into which expansion cards are inserted
Expansion card: A circuit board used to add
additional functionality or to attach a peripheral
device
ExpressCard modules:
Designed for notebook
computer expansion

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Bus Width, Bus Speed, and Bandwidth
Bus: An electronic path over
which data can travel
Bus width: The number of wires
in the bus over which data can
travel
Bus width and speed determine
the throughput (or bandwidth)
of the bus
 The amount of data that can be
transferred by the bus in a given time
period

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Buses
Bus: An electronic path within a computer over
which data travels
 Expansion bus: Connects the CPU to peripheral (typically input
and output) devices
 Memory bus: connects CPU directly to RAM
 Frontside bus: connects CPU to I/O bridge
 (PCIe) bus
 Universal SeriaPCI and PCI Express l Bus (USB)
 FireWire/IEEE 1394 bus (a serial bus for high-speed
communications)

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Ports and Connectors
Port: A connector on the exterior of a computer’s system
unit to which a device may be attached

– Monitor (VGA, – SCSI

DVI, HDMI) – MIDI
– Network – IrDA
– Modem – Flash memory card
– USB slots
– FireWire – Game
– Keyboard – Audio
– eSATA

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Ports and Connectors

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Ports and Connectors
Notebook and netbook computers have ports
similar to desktop computers, but often not as
many
UMPCs and mobile devices typically have less
ports
 An SD slot is common for both memory cards
and to connect peripheral devices

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Quick Quiz
1. Which type of memory is erased when the
power goes out?
a. ROM
b. RAM
c. flash memory
2. True or False: The CPU can also be called the
motherboard.
3. A(n) electronic path within a computer over
which data travels is called a(n) _____________.
Answers:
1) b; 2) False; 3) bus

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How the CPU Works
CPU: Consists of a variety of circuitry and
components packaged together
 Transistor: Key element of the microprocessor
 Made of semi-conductor material that acts like a switch controlling
the flow of electrons inside a chip
Today’s CPUs contain hundreds of millions of transistors;
the number doubles about every 18 months (Moore’s Law)

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Typical CPU Components
Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU): Performs integer
arithmetic and logical operations
Floating Point Unit (FPU): Performs decimal arithmetic
Control unit: Coordinates and controls activities
Prefetch unit: Tries to fetch data and instructions before
they are needed from cache or RAM
Decode unit: Translates instructions so they are
understood by the control unit, ALU, and FPU
Internal cache and registers: Store data and
instructions needed by the CPU
Bus interface unit: Allows the core to communicate with
other CPU components

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Typical CPU Components

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The System Clock and the Machine Cycle
System clock: Timing mechanism within the computer
system that synchronizes the computer’s operations
 Each signal is a cycle
 Number of cycles per second = hertz (Hz)
 Many PC system clocks run at 200 MHz
 Computers can run at a multiple or fraction of the system clock
 For instance, with a CPU clock speed of 2 GHz, the CPU clock “ticks”
10 times during each system clock tick
 During each CPU clock tick, one or more pieces of microcode are
processed

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The System Clock and the Machine Cycle
Machine cycle: The series of operations
involved in the execution of a single machine
level instruction
Fetch: The program instruction is fetched
Decode: The instructions are decoded so the control unit,
ALU, and FPU can understand them
Execute: The instructions are
carried out
Store: The original data or the
result from the ALU or FPU
execution is stored in the CPU’s
registers

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Making Computers Faster and Better Now and in
the Future
Improving performance today
 Add more memory
 Perform system maintenance
 Uninstall programs properly
 Consider placing large files on external storage devices
 Delete temporary files
 Error check and defragment
 Scan for viruses and spyware
 Clean out dust once or twice a year
 Buy a larger or second hard drive
 Upgrade your Internet connection
 Upgrade your video graphics card

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 Making Computers Faster and Better Now and in
the Future
Strategies for faster and better
computers
 Improved architecture: Smaller components,
faster bus speeds, multiple CPU cores, etc.
 Improved materials: New backing materials,
flexible circuits, etc.
 Pipelining: Allows multiple instructions to be
processed at one time
 Multiprocessing and parallel processing:
Use multiple processors to speed up processing

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Pipelining

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Future Trends
Nanotechnology: The science of creating tiny
computers and components less than 100
nanometers in size
Carbon nanotubes used in many products today
Nanoparticles and nanosensors
Future applications may be
built by working at the
individual atomic and
molecular levels

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Future Trends
Quantum computing: Applies the
principles of quantum physics and
quantum mechanics to computers
Utilizes atoms or nuclei working together as
quantum bits (qubits)
Qubits function simultaneously as the computer’s
processor and memory and can represent more
than two states
Expected to be used for specialized applications,
such as encryption and code breaking

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Future Trends
Optical computer: Uses light, such as from laser
beams or infrared beams, to perform digital
computations
 Opto-electronic computers use both optical and electronic components
Silicon photonics: The process of making optical
devices using silicon manufacturing techniques
 Silicon based light sensor
Terascale computing: The ability to process one
trillion floating-point operations per second
 Expected to be needed for future applications

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 Quick Quiz

1. Optical computers use which of the following

to transmit and process data?
a. Liquid
b. Light
c. Silicon
2. True or False: If your computer is running
slowly, adding more memory might speed it up.
3. A quantum bit is known as a(n)
__________________.
Answers:
1) b; 2) True; 3) qubit

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