GEOG 111: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL

GEOGRAPHY

Lecture 5:
The Atmosphere

Instructor: Dr. Peter Bilson Obour

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 Learning Goals

Gaseous Composition of the Atmosphere

Dust and Water in the Atmosphere
Vertical Pressure Structure of the
Atmosphere
Vertical Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere
 The Atmosphere

It is a thin layer of gases surrounding the

planet earth.

Many of the planets in the solar system have

atmospheres, but as far as we know, not like
the one on earth that can support human life.
Gaseous Composition of the Atmosphere
 Composition of Atmosphere

 Nitrogen - 78%

 Nitrogen dilutes oxygen

and prevents rapid
burning at the earth's
surface.
 Living things need it to
make proteins.
 Nitrogen cannot be used
directly from the air.
 The Nitrogen Cycle is
the natural way of
supplying the needed
nitrogen for living things.
 Composition of Atmosphere
 Oxygen - 21% -
– Use by all living things.
– Essential for respiration.
– It is necessary for combustion or burning

 Argon - 0.9%
– Used in light bulbs

 Carbon Dioxide - 0.03%

– Plants use it to make oxygen
– Acts as a blanket and prevents the escape of heat into outer space
– Scientists are afraid that the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil are adding
more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
 Water Vapor - 0.0 to 4.0%
– Essential for life processes
– Also prevents heat loss from the earth.
 Trace gases - gases found only in very small amounts
– They include neon,
– helium,
– krypton, and
– xenon
 Other Components: Water Vapor

 Water Vapor
– The amount of water in the atmosphere varies between 0-
4%
– Water vapor is the source of all clouds and precipitation
– Water has the ability, like carbon dioxide, to absorb heat
energy given off by the Earth.
– It also absorbs solar energy
– When water changes from one state to another it absorbs or
releases heat. This heat is often called latent (hidden) heat.
This is the energy source that helps drive a lot of storms.
 Atmospheric Dust
 Dust is much more than just little specks of dirt.

 It includes microscopic particles that are invisible to the

naked eye, including pollen, spores, and seeds.

 Dust particles are more commonly found in the troposphere,

near the Earth’s surface where their main source, the Earth
itself. However, there is dust in the upper atmosphere as well
because some dust is carried to great heights by rising
currents of air.

 Other dust particles can be remains of meteors that

disintegrate as the pass through the Earth’s atmosphere.
 Atmospheric Dust

 Dust act as surfaces where water can condense (group

together), forming clouds from which water droplets can grow
large and fall to the ground as snow or rain.

 Dust causes the formation of clouds or fog.

 Dust also absorbs or reflects incoming solar radiation.

 When dust in the atmosphere is high, such as it would be after a

volcanic explosion, the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s
surface will decrease.

 Dust can also contribute to scattering light, giving rise to more

orange and red sunrises or sunsets.
 Structure of the Atmosphere

 The Atmosphere is divided into layers according to

major changes in temperature.

 Gravity pushes the layers of air down on the earth's

surface. This push is called air pressure.
 99% of the total mass of the atmosphere is below 32
kilometers.
The Structure of the Atmosphere
 Troposphere
 Troposphere - 0 to 12 km

 Contains 75% of the gases in the atmosphere. This is where we live and
weather conditions occur. As height increases, temperature decreases.
The temperature drops about 6.5 degrees Celsius for every kilometer
above the earth's surface.

 Tropopause - located at the top of the troposphere. The temperature

remains fairly constant here. This layer separates the troposphere from
the stratosphere. We find the jet stream here. These are very strong
winds that blow eastward.

 From the earth's surface to 11-12 km above, temperature decreases with

height. This fact results from the sun's radiation striking the earth and the
earth then warming the air above it. So the closer the air is to the ground,
the warmer it becomes
Troposphere
 Troposphere

 The rate of change of air temperature with height is called the "lapse rate". In the
troposphere, the lapse rate is generally about 6.5 deg C per kilometer increase
in altitude.

 The temperature can increase with height in the lower troposphere. When this
happens, it is called an "inversion". If the temperature remains the same with
height, it is called "isothermal".

 The actual lapse rate varies with location, time of day, weather conditions,
season, etc.

 Because warm air tends to rise and cool air tends to sink, the troposphere is a
location of much movement of air, or "turbulence". Hence, the troposphere is
described by meteorologists as being "well-mixed". If pollutants are injected into
the troposphere, they are mixed throughout its depth in a few days and, usually
within a week or so, will fall back to the ground with the rain (e.g., acid rain).
Thus, the troposphere has a self-cleaning mechanism.
 Stratosphere

 Stratosphere - 12 to 50 km –

 In the lower part of the stratosphere temperature remains fairly

constant (-60 degrees Celsius).

 This layer contains the ozone layer.

 Ozone acts as a shield for in the earth's surface. It absorbs

ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

 This causes a temperature increase in the upper part of the layer.

 Stratopause is the dividing line between Stratosphere and

Mesosphere
 Mesosphere
 Mesosphere - 50 to 80 km

 The air pressure and density in the mesosphere are extremely low (about
1/1000th of the surface)

 There is not enough oxygen to breathe here, although the percentage of oxygen
in the atmosphere is about the same

 The stratosphere warms the lowest levels of the mesosphere and the heat is
slowly circulated throughout the mesosphere.

 The temperature drops in this layer to about -100 degrees Celsius. This is the
coldest region of the atmosphere. This layer protects the earth from meteoroids.
They burn up in this area.

 Mesopause separates this layer from the Thermosphere layer

 Thermosphere

 Thermosphere - 80 km and up –

 The air is very thin. Thermosphere means "heat sphere". The temperature is
very high in this layer because ultraviolet radiation is turned into heat.
Temperatures often reach 2000 degrees Celsius or more. This layer
contains:

– Ionosphere - This is the lower part of the thermosphere. It extends from

about 80 to 550 km. Gas particles absorb ultraviolet and X-ray radiation
from the sun. The particles of gas become electrically charged (ions).
Radio waves are bounced off the ions and reflect waves back to earth.
This generally helps radio communication. However, solar flares can
increase the number of ions and can interfere with the transmission of
some radio waves.

– Exosphere - the upper part of the thermosphere. It extends from about

550 km for thousands of kilometers. Air is very thin here. This is the area
where satellites orbit the earth.
 Atmospheric Pressure

 Atmospheric pressure is defined as the force per unit area

exerted against a surface by the weight of the air above
that surface.

 In the diagram below, the pressure at point "X" increases

as the weight of the air above it increases.

 The same can be said about decreasing pressure, where

the pressure at point "X" decreases if the weight of the air
above it also decreases
Atmospheric Pressure
 Ozone Layer

 The ozone layer is a portion of earth’s atmosphere that contains

high levels of ozone, between 20-25km in the Stratosphere.

 The ozone found in our atmosphere is formed by an interaction

between oxygen molecules (composed of two oxygen atoms) and
ultraviolet light.

 When ultraviolet light hits these oxygen molecules, the reaction

causes the molecules to break apart into single atoms of oxygen
(UV light + O2 --> O + O).

 These single atoms of oxygen are very reactive, and a single atom
combines with a molecule of oxygen to form ozone (O 3), which is
composed of three atoms of oxygen (2O + 2O 2 --> 2O3).
 Ozone Layer

 The ozone layer is essential for human life. It absorbs harmful

ultraviolet radiation, preventing penetration to the earth’s surface.

 Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is defined as radiation with wavelengths

between 290-320 nanometers, which are harmful to life because
this radiation can enter cells and destroy the deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) of many life forms on planet earth.

 In a sense, the ozone layer can be thought of as a UV filter. Without

the ozone layer, UV radiation would not be filtered as it reached the
surface of the earth.

 If this happened, cancer would break out and all of the living
civilizations, and all species on earth would be in jeopardy.

 The ozone layer essentially allows life to exist .

 Destruction of Ozone Layer

 Human activity 75-85%

 Volcanic Activity 1-5%

 Natural 15-20%

 The most evident and destructive molecule of this

description is chloroflourocarbons (CFCs).

 CFCs are used in clean electronic circuit boards, in

aerosols and coolants, such as refrigerators and air
conditioners.
 Destruction of Ozone Layer
 As CFCs are emitted, the molecules float toward the ozone rich
stratosphere. Then, when UV radiation contacts the CFC
molecule, this causes one chlorine atom to liberate. This free
chlorine then reacts with an ozone (O 3) molecule to form chlorine
monoxide (ClO) and a single oxygen molecule (O 2).

 Chemical equation: Cl + O3 --> O2 + ClO. Then, a single oxygen

atom reacts with a chlorine monoxide molecule, causing the
formation of an oxygen molecule (O 2) and a single chlorine atom
(O + ClO --> Cl + O2). This threatening chlorine atom then
continues the cycle and results in further destruction of the ozone
layer .

 Measures have been taken to reduce the amount of CFC

emission, but since CFCs have a life span of 20-100 years,
previously emitted CFCs will do damage for years to come.
 Global Warming

 The greenhouse effect is unquestionably real and helps to

regulate the temperature of our planet.

 It is essential for life on Earth and is one of Earth's natural

processes.

 It is the result of heat absorption by certain gases in the

atmosphere (called greenhouse gases because they effectively
'trap' heat in the lower atmosphere) and re-radiation downward
of some of that heat
 Global Warming

 Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas, followed by

carbon dioxide and other trace gases

 Without a natural greenhouse effect, the temperature of the

Earth would be about zero degrees F (-18°C) instead of its
present 57°F (14°C)

 So, the concern is not with the fact that we have a greenhouse
effect, but whether human activities are leading to an
enhancement of the greenhouse effect.
 Greenhouse Gasses

 Water Vapor

 Carbon Dioxide

 Methane

 Tropospheric Ozone

 Nitrous Oxide

 Synthetic greenhouse gases

 Further reading
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/gases.html
 Are greenhouse gases increasing?

 Human activity has been increasing the concentration of greenhouse

gases in the atmosphere (mostly carbon dioxide from combustion of
coal, oil, and gas; plus a few other trace gases).

 There is no scientific debate on this point. Pre-industrial levels of carbon

dioxide (prior to the start of the Industrial Revolution) were about 280
parts per million by volume (ppmv), and current levels are about 370
ppmv. The concentration of CO2 in our atmosphere today, has not been
exceeded in the last 420,000 years, and likely not in the last 20 million
years.

 According to the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES),

by the end of the 21st century, we could expect to see carbon dioxide
concentrations of anywhere from 490 to 1260 ppm (75-350% above the
pre-industrial concentration).
 Is the climate warming?

 Yes. Global surface temperatures have increased about 0.6°C

(plus or minus 0.2°C) since the late-19th century, and about
0.4°F (0.2 to 0.3°C) over the past 25 years (the period with the
most credible data).

 The warming has not been globally uniform. Some areas

(including parts of the southeastern U.S.) have, in fact, cooled
over the last century. The recent warmth has been greatest over
North America and Eurasia between 40 and 70°N.

 Warming, assisted by the record El Niño of 1997-1998, has

continued right up to the present, with 2001 being the second
warmest year on record after 1998.
 Summary

 The atmosphere is a mixture of gases.

 Air is highly compressible, so that half of its mass occurs in the

lowest 5 km.

 The vertical structure of the atmosphere comprises relatively

cold layers (troposphere and mesosphere) and warm layers
(stratosphere and thermosphere).

 The temperature profile is determined by atmospheric

absorption of solar radiation, and the decrease of density with
height.
End of Class

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