Hydropower

Total Weightage- 125 marks

Laboratory Assignment- 25 marks (4 Nos. of Lab. assignments)
Internal Assessment- 20 Marks

03/21/2024
Final Examination- 80 Marks

BE Electrical Engineering MR Kafle

Total- 7 Chapters
Hydrology – Engineering Hydrology, K. Subramanyam
Fluid mechanics and Hydraulics- Modi & Seth, Dr. Jagdishlal
Hydropower components and Planning- M.M Dandeker, T.K
Sharma

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2.1 Introduction to Hydrology
Hydrological Cycle
The hydrological cycle of the earth is the sum total of all processes in which water
moves from the land and ocean surface to the atmosphere and back in form of
precipitation. The hydrological cycle is dependent on various factors and is equally

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affected by oceans and land surfaces.

Hence it is quite important to understand and learn the processes of the

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Hydrological (Water) cycle.
Step 1: Evaporation.
Step 2: Condensation. ...
Step 3: Sublimation. ...
Step 4: Precipitation. ...
Step 5: Transpiration. ...
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Step 6: Runoff. ...
Step 7: Infiltration
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Precipitation
Precipitation – It is the process by which all forms of water reach back to earth
from the atmosphere. Precipitation occurs in the form of rainfall, frost, hail, and
dew. Among all, rainfall and snowfall contribute a significant amount of water.

Forms of Precipitation

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Rain - Rain is a form of precipitation that is in the form of water drops of a size
larger than 0.5mm. The maximum raindrop size is about 6mm. Drops of larger

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size break up into smaller drops as it falls down.

Snow-Snow consists of ice crystals in a flaky form (average density ~ 0.1g/cc).

It is also an important form of precipitation.

Drizzle- Drizzle is a fine sprinkle of tiny water droplets of size less than
0.5mm and intensity greater than 1mm/h. The tiny drops forming a drizzle
appear to float in the air.

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 Precipitation
Glaze (Freezing Rain)- The glaze is formed when rain or drizzle comes in contact
with the cold ground at around 0 degrees celsius. The water drops freeze to form an
ice coating.
Sleet -Sleet is frozen raindrops formed when rainfall passes through the air at
subfreezing temperatures.

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Hail - Hail is a type of showery precipitation in the form of pellets or lumps of size
greater than 8mm. Hail occurs in violent thunderstorms.

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Types of Precipitation
Precipitation occurs when the moist air mass undergoes condensation. This process
happens when the air is cooled and saturated with the same amount of moisture.
This process of cooling air mass is performed only when the air mass moves up to
higher altitudes. The air mass can be lifted to higher altitudes mainly by three
methods based on which there are three types of precipitation namely:
1. Cyclonic Precipitation
2. Convective Precipitation 5
3. Orographic Precipitation
 Precipitation
1. Cyclonic Precipitation
A cyclone is a region in the atmosphere with large low pressure having circular wind
motion. The cyclonic precipitation is caused by the movement of moist air mass to this
region due to the difference in pressure. Cyclones can be of two types frontal and non-
frontal precipitation.

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Frontal Precipitation
A frontal is called as the hot moist air mass boundary. This precipitation is caused by the
expansion of air near the frontal surface.

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Non-Frontal Precipitation
This is a cold moist air mass boundary that moves and results in precipitation.
2. Convective Precipitation
The air above the land area gets heated up by some cause. The most warmer air rises up
and cools and precipitates. Convective precipitation is showery in nature. This type of
precipitation happens in varying intensities. The areal extent of convective precipitation
is small in the range of less than 10km in diameter.
3. Orographic Precipitation
Moving air masses have chances to strike barriers like mountains. Once they strike, they
rise up which causes condensation and precipitation. The precipitation is greater in the 6
windward side of the barrier compared to the leeward side of the barrier.
Measurement of Rainfall
Precipitation is expressed in terms of the vertical depth to which water from it
would stand on a level surface area if all the water from it were collected on this
surface.
The amount of precipitation is measured using a rain gauge (also called

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pluviometer, ombrometer, hyetometer etc). Different rainguages and selection of
raingauage stations are explained below.
Measurement of Rainfall Using Raingauges

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A rain gauge consists of a cylindrical vessel assembly kept in the open to collect
rain. Rainfall collected in the rain gauge is measured at regular intervals.
Rainfall catch is affected by the exposure conditions of the rain gauge. Rain gauges
may be broadly classified into 2 categories:
1.Non-recording raingauges and
2.Recording raingauges
Non-recording Raingauge
These rain gauges just collect the rainwater but do not record the quantity of
rainfall. The most extensively used non-recording rain gauge is Symon’s gauge. 7
Circular collecting area of 12.7 cm diameter connected to a funnel. The rim of the
collector is set in a horizontal plane at a height of 30.5cm above the ground level.
Measurement of Rainfall
The funnel discharges the rainfall catch into a receiving vessel. The funnel and
collecting vessel (bottle) are housed in a metallic container. Water collected in the
bottle is measured using a suitably graduated measuring jar with 0.1mm
accuracy. Rainfall is measured in mm or cm of water depth

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Fig.1. Non - Recording Rain gauge (Symon’s gauge)
 Measurement of Rainfall
Recording Rain Gauges
Recording raingauges give a permanent automatic record of rainfall. It has a
mechanical arrangement by which the total amount of rainfall since the start of record
gets automatically recorded on a graph paper. It produces a plot of cumulative rainfall
vs time (mass curve of rainfall). These rain gauges are also called integrating
raingauges since they record cumulative rainfall.

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In addition to the total amount of rainfall at a station, it gives the times of onset and
cessation of rains (thereby gives the duration of rainfall events). The slope of the plot
gives the intensity of rainfall for any given time period.

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They can provide continuous record for a number of days. They are very useful in
hilly and far off areas. In other areas, they are installed along with a non-recording
raingauge.
1. Tipping Bucket Type
2. Weighing Bucket Type
3. Natural Syphon Type

Tipping Bucket Type Weighing Bucket Type

Intensity Duration Curve
An intensity-duration-frequency curve (IDF curve) is a mathematical function
that relates the rainfall intensity with its duration and frequency of occurrence.
These curves are commonly used in hydrology for flood forecasting and civil
engineering for urban drainage design.

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 Intensity Duration Curve

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 2.2 Stream Gauging
Why required ?
The main reason to gather stream gauging data is to establish a baseline for use with
any future data comparisons. The historical stream gauge data becomes important
when the current data begins to trend outside of the historical data.
Gaging Station Selection

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The selection of a specific gaging site ultimately reflects the ultimate use of the
streamflow data. For example, if reservoir releases/outflows are to be monitored,
the general location of the gaging station will be on a reach of a stream channel

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between the dam and the first confluence of a stream of significant size.

The U.S Geological Survey (USGS) Rantz et al;(1982) have developed nine
criteria for an ideal gaging site. The criteria are:
1.The stream course is straight for about 300 feet upstream and downstream of the
gage site.
2. At all stages, the total flow is confined to a single channel. There is also no
subsurface or groundwater flow that bypasses the site.
3. The streambed in the vicinity of the site is not subject to scour and fill. It is also
free of aquatic plants. 12
4. The banks of the stream channel are permanent. They are free of brush and high
enough to contain floods.
 Stream Gauging
5. The stream channel has unchanging natural controls. These controls are bedrock
outcrops or stable riffle for low flow conditions.
6. At extremely low stages, a pool is present upstream from the site. This will
ensure the recording of extremely low flows and avoid the high velocities
associated with high stream flows.
7. The gaging site is far enough removed from the confluence with another stream

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or from tidal effects to avoid any possible impacts on the measurement of stream
stage.
8. Within the proximity of the gage site, a reach for the measurement of discharge

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at all stages is available.
9.The site is accessible for installation and operation and maintenance of the gaging
site. The selection of a gaging site is again a compromise between these criteria.

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Section control (riffle under the bridge) during low flow at Channel control during high flow at Eel River near Scotia.
Eel River near Scotia.
River Stage Measurement
Stage is the water level above some arbitrary point, usually with the zero height
being near the river bed.
Streamgaging generally involves 3 steps:

1. Measuring stream stage—Obtaining a continuous record of stage—the height

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of the water surface at a location along a stream or river

2. The discharge measurement—Obtaining periodic measurements of discharge

(the quantity of water passing a location along a stream)

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3. The stage-discharge relation—defining the natural but often changing relation
between the stage and discharge; using the stage-discharge relation to convert the
continuously measured stage into estimates of streamflow or discharge.

A staff gage gives a quick estimate of gage

height (stage) of a river

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 Discharge Measurement
Discharge is the volume of water moving down a stream or river per unit of time,
commonly expressed in cubic meter per second. In general, river discharge is computed
by multiplying the area of water in a channel cross section by the average velocity of the
water in that cross section:
Discharge = Area x Velocity (Q=A X V) Continuity Equation

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Area Velocity Method
The most common method used for
measuring velocity is with a current meter.

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However, a variety of advanced equipment
can also be used to sense stage and measure
streamflow. In the simplest method, a
current meter turns with the flow of the river
or stream. The current meter is used to
measure water velocity at predetermined
points (subsections) along a marked line,
suspended cableway, or bridge across a river
or stream. The depth of the water is also
measured at each point. These velocity and
depth measurements are used to compute the
total volume of water flowing past the line
during a specific interval of time. Usually a 15
river or stream will be measured at 25 to 30
regularly spaced locations across the river or
stream.
 Current Meter
Current Meter

One method that has been used for decades for measuring discharge is the
mechanical current-meter method. In this method, the stream channel cross section
is divided into numerous vertical subsections. In each subsection, the area is

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obtained by measuring the width and depth of the subsection, and the water velocity
is determined using a current meter. The discharge in each subsection is computed
by multiplying the subsection area by the measured velocity. The total discharge is
then computed by summing the discharge of each subsection.

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V=aNs+b

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(Credit: Justin Bongard, U.S. Geological Survey. Public
domain.)
 Floating Method
A fairly simple method for measuring flow rate through an open channel is the Float
method. ... Briefly put, this method involves measuring the surface velocity of the
water with a floating object, and then multiplying this velocity by the width and
average depth of the channel.

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Stage-Discharge Relationship
The stage-discharge relation
Streamgages continuously measure stage. This continuous record of stage is
translated to river discharge by applying the stage-discharge relation (also called
rating). Stage-discharge relations are developed for streamgages by physically
measuring the flow of the river with a mechanical current meter or ADCP at a wide

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range of stages; for each measurement of discharge there is a corresponding
measurement of stage. The stage-discharge relation depends upon the shape, size,
slope, and roughness of the channel at the streamgage and is different for every
streamgage.

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Stage-Discharge Relation Example

Slope-Area Method
An indirect method of discharge measurement, especially after floods, by
determining the water surface slope during the peak flow, by using the high
water marks, a survey of two or more river cross sections along a stretch of the
river, and by estimating the river roughness coefficient.

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Uses the Manning formula:

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Good for estimating flood peaks which cannot otherwise be measured.

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 Dilution Technique
Tracer-Dilution Methods. The tracer-dilution method is capable of measuring both
open channel and closed conduit flow. ... Then, by chemical analysis, the downstream
diluted uniformly mixed concentration, C 2, is measured. The solution must be added
at a known constant discharge, q.
No measurements of flow section geometry or reach distance are required because the

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total flow is measured directly. The discharge of the channel flow, Q, is measured by
determining C0, C1, C2, and the injection rate, q.

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If salt solutions are used as tracers, then chemical or conductivity measurement
methods are used for detection and concentration measurements.

where Q = discharge [l/s] S = amount of salt injected [mg] Cal = calibration factor,
C (t) = conductivity after time step t, C 0 = base level conductivity, dT = time
interval [s]
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Dilution Technique

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Mixing conditions in a stream (adapted from Wolf 1998)

Discharge Measurement Videos
• Dilution Method- https://youtu.be/Mu9sAW5ZnVw
• Area- Velocity Method- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
Kas7Bufd95k

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 2.3 Estimation of Peak Flows
Flood estimation
Flood estimation methods
1.Empirical method
2.Rational method
3.Unit-hydrograph technique
4.Flood-frequency studies

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Flood Estimation method - Selection criteria
• Desired objective

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• Available data
• Importance of the project
• Other factors-technical assumptions

The rational formula is only applicable to small-size (< 50km²) catchments and the
unit-hydrograph method is normally restricted to moderate-size catchments with areas
less than 5000 km².

Empirical method
These are regional bases formulae based on the statistical correlation and important 23
catchment properties. These are generally based on flood peak-area correlation Qp= f(A).
Where , Qp is maximum flood discharge, A is the area of the catchment
 2.3 Estimation of Peak Flows

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2.3 Estimation of Peak Flows
Rational Method is generally considered to be one of the best available flood
estimation procedures for small urban and rural catchment areas. ... As such, it
provides a means of estimating the design flood of a certain return period, with the
rainfall duration equal to the time of concentration.
Q  C * i *A

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Where,
Q = Maximum Rate of Runoff (m3/s)

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C = Runoff Coefficient
i = Average Rainfall Intensity (mm/hr)
A = Drainage Area (km2)

Gumbel’s distribution is a statistical method often used for predicting extreme

hydrological events such as floods. This method is applied for flood frequency
analysis when (a) the river is less regulated (b) flow data are homogeneous and
independent (c) peak flow data cover a relatively long record (more than 10 years)
etc.
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 2.3 Estimation of Peak Flows

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 Numerical Example (Gumbel’s Method)

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 Numerical Example (Area-Velocity Method)

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