Heat Transfer

CHAPTER 2
" Introduction to Conduction "
Instructor: Eng. Sohaib Al-Maasfeh
youtube channel
 Conduction Rate Equation

Fourier's law is phenomenological; that is, it is developed

from observed phenomena rather than being derived from
first principles. Hence, the rate equation is a generalization
based on the experimental evidence. Consider the steady state
conduction experiment of Figure 2.1.
 Conduction Rate Equation
A cylindrical rod of known material is insulated on its lateral
surface, while its end faces are maintained at different
temperatures with T1 > T2 . The temperature difference

causes conduction heat transfer in the positive x direction.

We are able to measure the heat transfer rate qx, and we seek

to determine how qx depends on the following variables:

• The temperature difference, ΔT

• The rod length, ΔX
• The cross sectional area, A
 Conduction Rate Equation

We might imagine first holding ΔT and ΔX constant and

varying A. If we do so, we find that qx is directly

proportional to A. Similarly, holding ΔT and A constant, we

observe that qx varies inversely with ΔX . Finally,

holding A and ΔX constant, we find that qx is directly

proportional to ΔT . The collective effect is then

 Conduction Rate Equation

In changing the material (eg. from metal to a plastic), we

would find that the above proportionality remains valid.
However, we would also find that, for equal values of A, ΔT,
Δx the value of qx would be smaller for the plastic than for the

metal. This suggests that the proportionality may be

converted to equality by introducing a coefficient that is a
measure of the material behavior. Hence, we write
 Conduction Rate Equation

where k , the thermal conductivity (W/m.K) is an

important property of the material. Evaluating this
expression in the limit as Δx =0 , we obtain for the heat rate

or for the heat flux

 Conduction Rate Equation

Recall that the minus sign is necessary because heat is

always transferred in the direction of decreasing
temperature.Fourier's law, as written in Equation 2.4, it
follows that (q"x) is normal to the cross sectional area A . Or,

more generally, the direction of heat flow will always be

normal to a surface of constant temperature, called
an isothermal surface.
 Conduction Rate Equation

Figure 2.2 illustrates the direction of heat flow (q"x) in a

plane wall for which the temperature gradient dT/dx is

negative. From equation 2.4, it follows that (q"x) is positive.

Note that the isothermal surfaces are planes normal to

the x -direction.

Figure 2.2
 Conduction Rate Equation
Relation between co-ordinate system, heat flow direction and
temperature gradient in one dimension
Recognizing that the heat flux is a vector quantity, we can
write a more general statement of the conduction rate
equation ( Fourier's Law) ,as follows:

(2.5)
 Conduction Rate Equation

where is the three dimensional del operator and T(x,y,z) is

the scalar temperature field. It is implicit in Equation 2.4
that the heat flux vector is in a direction perpendicular to
the isothermal surfaces.
The heat flux vector can also be resolved into components
such that, in Cartesian coordinates, the general expression
for q" is
(2.5)
 Conduction Rate Equation

where from Equation 2.4, it follows that,

Each of these expressions relates the heat flux across a surface

to the temperature gradient in a direction perpendicular to
the surface. It is also implicit in Equation 2.4 that the medium
is which conduction occurs is isotropic. The thermal
conductivity is independent of the coordinate direction in
an isotropic medium.
 The Thermal Properties of Matter

Thermal conductivity of a material is defined as the rate of heat transfer

through a unit thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature
difference.q" increase as K increase for certain temperature gradient .
In general , the thermal conductivity of of a solid is larger than that
of a liquid , which larger than of gases .
 Thermal diffusivty

In our analysis of heat transfer problems, it will be necessary to use

many properties of matter. These properties are generally referred to
as thermo physical properties and include two distinct
categories, transport and thermodynamic properties. The transport
properties include the diffusion rate coefficients such as k, the thermal
conductivity (for heat transfer), and , the kinematic viscosity (for
momentum transfer). Thermodynamic properties, on the other hand,
pertain to the equilibrium state of a system.
 Thermal diffusivty

Density () and specific heat (Cp) are two such properties used extensively in

thermodynamic analysis. The product Cp commonly termed volumetric

heat capacity, measures the ability of a material to store thermal energy.

Because substances of large density are typically characterized by small

specific heats, many solids and liquids, which are very good energy storage

media, have comparable heat capacities. Because of their very small

densities, however, gases are poorly suited for thermal energy storage. In

heat transfer analysis, the ratio of the thermal conductivity to the heat

capacity is an important property termed the thermal diffusivity , which

has units of m2/s.

 Thermal diffusivty

It measures the ability of a material to conduct thermal

energy relative to its ability to store thermal energy.
Materials of large will respond quickly to changes in
their thermal environment, while materials of small
will respond more sluggishly, taking longer to reach a
new equilibrium condition.
 The Heat Diffusion Equation

Rectangular coordinate:
 The Heat Diffusion Equation

Within the medium there may also be an energy source

term associated with the rate of thermal energy generation.
This term is represented as:

Where is the time rate of change of the sensible (thermal)

energy of the medium per unit volume. ,If the material is
not experiencing a change in phase, latent energy effects are
not pertinent, and the energy storage term may be
expressed as
 The Heat Diffusion Equation

where is the rate at which energy is generated per unit

volume of the medium

The general form of the conservation of energy requirement

is :
=
Hence, recognizing that the conduction rates constitute the
energy inflow dot and Outflow dot
 The Heat Diffusion Equation

-=
++

‫تعويض المعادالت الثالث‬

‫في المعادلة‬
In one dimensional heat conduction for rectangular coordinate:
(dx dy dz)‫السابقة‬ ‫والقسمة على‬
 The Heat Diffusion Equation
Three cases:
1. Steady state system (Poisson-equation)

2- Transient, No heat generation (diffusion-equation) =0.0

3- No heat generation, Steady state (Laplace-equation)

 The Heat Diffusion Equation
Example
The temperature distribution across a wall 1m thick at a
certain instant of time is given as Where T is in degrees
Celsius and x is in meters,while () A uniform heat generation
is present in the Wall of area 10 having the properties
 The Heat Diffusion Equation

1. Determine the rate of heat transfer entering the wall (x = 0) and leaving the

wall (x = 1m)

2. Determine the rate of change of energy storage in the wall.

3. Determine the time rate of temperature change at x = 0 0.25, and 0.5 m .

 The Heat Diffusion Equation
Solution
 Cylindrical coordinate

 The general form of heat equation in cylindrical coordinates:-

 In one dimensional heat conduction for cylindrical coordinates:-

 Cylindrical coordinate
Three cases:
1. Steady state system (Poisson-equation)

2- Transient, No heat generation (diffusion-equation) =0.0

3- No heat generation, Steady state (Laplace-equation)

 Spherical coordinate

 The general form of heat equation in spherical coordinates:-

 In one dimensional heat conduction for spherical coordinates :-

 Spherical coordinate
Three cases:
1. Steady state system (Poisson-equation)

2- Transient, No heat generation (diffusion-equation) =0.0

3- No heat generation, Steady state (Laplace-equation)

Initial and Boundary condition
 Problem 1

Example
Consider a large plane wall of thickness L=0.2 m, thermal
conductivity k=1.2 W/m °C, and surface area A=15 m2. The two
sides of the wall are maintained at constant temperatures of T1 =

120 °C and T2 = 50 °C, respectively, as shown in the figure.

Determine the variation of temperature within the wall and the
value of temperature at x= 0.1 m and the rate of heat conduction
through the wall under steady conditions.
 Problem 1

Solution
 Problem 2

Example:
Consider a steam pipe of length L = 20 m, inner radius ,
outer radius and thermal conductivity k = 20 W/m.K.
The inner and outer surfaces of the pipe are maintained at
= 150 °C and T₂ = 60 °C, respectively. Determine the rate
of heat loss from the steam pipe under steady conditions.
 Problem 2

Solution
 Problem 2

Solution
 Problem 2

Solution
 Problem 3
Example:
One-dimensional, steady-state conduction with uniform internal energy
generation occurs in a plane wall with a thickness of 50 mm and a constant
thermal conductivity of For these conditions, the temperature distribution has
the form The surface at x = 0 has a temperature of and experiences convection
with a fluid for which
 Problem 3
Example:
A. Applying an overall energy balance to the wall, calculate the
volumetric energy generation rate q.
B. Determine the coefficients a, b, and c by applying the boundary
conditions to the prescribed temperature distribution. Use the
results to calculate and plot the temperature distribution.
C. Consider conditions for which the convection coefficient is
halved, but the volumetric energy generation rate remains
unchanged. Determine the new values of a, b, and c, and use the
results to plot the temperature distribution. Hint: recognize
that T(0) is no longer 120°C.
 Problem

Solution
a.
 Problem

Solution
b.
 Problem

Solution
c.
 Problem

Solution
 Problem 4

Example:
A plane wall of thickness mm and thermal conductivity k = 5W /m K,
experiences uniform volumetric heat generation at a rateq. while
convection heat transfer occurs at both of its surfaces (x = - L, L)
each of which is exposed to a fluid of temperature Under steady-
state conditions, the temperature distribution in the wall is of the
form ,. and x is in meters. The origin of the x-coordinate is at the mid
plane of the wall.
 Problem 4

Example:
a. Sketch the temperature distribution
b. What is the volumetric rate of heat generation in the wall?
c. Determine the surface heat fluxes q ̈(- L) and q ̈( L) .
d. What are the convection coefficients for the surfaces at x = -
L and x = L ?
e. Obtain an expression for the heat flux distribution q ̈(x) . Is
the heat flux zero at any location?
 Problem 4

Example:
• If the source of the heat generation is suddenly deactivated
(=0) , what is the rate of change of energy stored in the wall at
this instant?
• What temperature will the wall eventually reach with (=0)
• How much energy must be removed by the fluid per unit area
of the wall to reach this state? The density and specific heat
of the wall material are respectively.
 Problem 4

Solution

T is distributed by the form

 T at -L
 Problem 4

Solution

−200
𝑥=− =0 . 005=−5 𝑚𝑚
2 ( −20000 )
𝑏 .

𝑞̇ =−2 𝑐𝑘=− 2(−20000)5=2 ×105 𝑊 /𝑚 3

 Problem 4

Solution
𝒄. The heat fluxes at the two boundaries can be determined using Fourier’s law and the temperature distribution expression.
 Problem 4

Solution
d.

e.
 Problem 4

Solution
g.