Module 6

Materials and Hardware

Fasteners

Part 4
 Fasteners
Washers

Plain washers are used to provide a smooth surface between

the nut and the structure or component to protect it when tightening
the nut and they may be used to spread the load on a tightened bolt
across a larger area.

They may also be used to adjust the grip length of a fastener.

Washers are produced in a variety of materials, sizes and thicknesses

and must be identified by part number and used accordingly.

Those intended for use under a bolt head often have a chamfer or
countersink to accommodate the under-head radius and must be
used in the correct orientation.
Various anti-vibration and locking devices may be incorporated in
washer design.

Among these are spring washers and shake-proof washers which

are axially deformed to increase friction between the nut or bolt
and the structure it is installed on.

These should be used once and discarded.

When used on light alloy structures a plain washer is also installed
to protect the surface.
Tab washers have a lug, which is located on the edge of a surface or
in a hole provided to prevent rotation, and two tabs which are bent
up against the flats of the nut, once tightened, to prevent loosening.
The 'Tinnerman' type washer is a large diameter aluminium washer
with a countersunk recess.

It is used to attach fibreglass and composite panels, the large flange

spreading the load of the countersunk fastener to the surrounding
material.
Studs are metal rods which are threaded at each end.

They are used where it is not desirable or possible to drill through

both components for the fitting of bolts.

One end of the stud is screwed, to the full extent of the thread, into
a tapped hole in one component - the 'fast' end, a second
component is placed onto the exposed plain portion of the stud and
clamped by a nut.

They also provide a means of alignment control, particularly when

they are irregularly spaced.
Standard Studs

The plain portion is the same diameter as the major diameter of

the thread and the length is indicated by the part number.

The length of the threaded portions is dictated by the specification.

Waisted Stud

The diameter of the plain portion of the waisted stud is reduced

to the minor diameter of the threaded ends, making the stud
lighter in weight, without impairing its ultimate strength.
Stepped Stud

This type is made with one threaded end of larger diameter than
the other. The large end screws into the unit, which is usually of soft
metal, so providing greater holding power.

Stepped studs are also used as replacements for damaged studs

where the stud hole in the job, which may also have been damaged,
has to be drilled and tapped to a larger diameter.
Shouldered Stud

The integral shoulder, machined on the plain portion of the stud,

seats firmly on the surface of the job into which the stud is
screwed, providing a more rigid assembly than could be obtained
with the use of an ordinary stud.

Where greater depth of thread engagement is required i.e. soft

material, a coarse series thread may be employed at the ‘fast’
(secured) end and a fine series thread at the clamping nut end of
the stud.
Insertion and Removal of Studs
Locknuts
Two plain nuts are screwed onto the top thread and locked against
each other, the lower nut being held by a spanner whilst the upper
nut is tightened down onto it. The complete assembly is screwed in
using the top nut.
Stud Box
This consists of a hexagonal body, with two different sized threads at
each end and is suitable for the insertion of two sizes of studs.

The stud box is screwed onto the stud and locked by a bolt, a soft
metal disc between them is used to prevent damage to the stud and
the locking bolt.

The stud is then fitted by turning the box body with a suitable
spanner.
Stud Tool
The Stud Tool consists of a hollow body with a handle attached.

The upper end is threaded to accommodate a locating screw, the

other end contains internally machined cam faces.

This tool is not suitable for waisted studs.

Stud Removal

Universal Stud Extractors consists of a body machined to

accommodate the square drive socket bush (for use with ratchet
handle or knuckle bar) and an eccentrically mounted knurled wheel.

The body is bored to allow the insertion of the largest diameter stud
of the tools range.
 The Stud Removal Wrench is a one piece tool.

Note: Stud removal tools damage the plain portion of the

stud and studs must be discarded after removal.
Stud Removal - Damaged Studs
Those damaged or broken above the surface of the component may
be removed by one of the following methods:

• Unscrew stud with a suitable pipe wrench or stud removal tool

• File flats on projecting part of stud and use an open ended spanner
or tap wrench to unscrew.

• Cut and file screwdriver slot in projecting part and unscrew with a
screwdriver.
 For studs broken flush with or below the surface of the
component one of the following methods should be used:

• Drill out stud, tap over-size and fit stepped stud

• Drill out stud, tap and fit threaded insert (or Twinsert).
• Drill (minor diameter of stud), pick out old loose thread, re-tap to
standard size - use only when accurate drilling and marking out
facilities are available.
• Drill a hole approximately half the stud diameter. Drive in a square
or splined tapered drift, unscrew with a spanner - care must be
taken not to expand the stud.
• Drill and tap the stud with a thread opposite hand to that of the
stud, insert a bolt and unscrew.
Ezy-Out screw extractor
This resembles a coarse left hand tapered tap and is used in
conjunction with a tap wrench.

The recommended size of hole (indicated on the screw extractor) is

drilled centrally in the stud and the ‘Ezy-Out’ is inserted
and tapped in firmly.

Rotating the wrench in an anti-clockwise direction causes the

extractor to screw in and grip the stud tightly until, when sufficient
turning movement is applied, the stud commences to unscrew.

This type of extractor is suitable for right hand threads only.

Rigid Type Screw Extractor

This extractor is issued as a boxed set; the set consists of a quantity

of twist drills, drill guides, extractor shafts and hexagonal adapters,
covering a specified range of screws.
Spark Erosion

Hardened steel studs and screws can be removed by this method.

The metal is removed by the thermal effect of electric discharges

across the gap between the tool electrode and the broken stud.

Spark Erosion
In action

A typical spark erosion

machine
Bolted Joints

The strength and reliability of bolted joints, or any joint dependant

on a screw thread, is governed by the quality of the assembly.

In order that the full strength of a nut is to be realised, it is essential

that the bolt thread is fully engaged with the nut.

Nut thickness standards have been drawn up on the basis that the
bolt will always sustain tensile fracture before either the nut or bolt
thread will strip.
Typically the first few pitches of a thread are only partially formed
because of the chamfer and thread lead-in or run-out areas.

It is therefore, vital that the bolt thread protrudes through the nut.

Failure to ensure this runs the risk that thread stripping will occur.

It is common practice to specify that one to two full thread pitches

must protrude although sometimes a measurement is given.

Boeing and Airbus specify that for flat ended bolts of all sizes the
minimum protrusion is 1/32 inch, while for bolts with a chamfered
lead-in, the entire chamfer must protrude.
A British requirement calls for the chamfer plus one full thread (i.e.
1.5 - 2.5 threads).

When these requirements have been met the bolt is said to be "In
Safety".

Conversely if the bolt is too long, the nut may run out of thread
before the desired tension is achieved.

In this situation the assembly is said to be "Thread-bound".

Bolted Joints

Where a ring of bolts, or nuts on studs, are used to hold and

assembly flange together, or a cover plate in place, even clamping is
essential to ensure a good seal is achieved.

It is usual practice to tighten the fasteners in stages and in a specific

order to ensure the correct installation ( as per tightening car engine
cylinder head bolts).
The order for tightening the fasteners is sometimes given in the
maintenance or overhaul manual but when it is not stated, fasteners
should be tightened as diametrical opposites.
Torque Loading

All fasteners must be tightened to a controlled 'tightness'.

This is done not to prevent the fastener from loosening (that is

accomplished by the locking devices and mechanism described
elsewhere).

Torque loading is applied to ensure that the clamping force of the

fastener is adequate and the tensile load on it has not exceeded its
limits.
When a nut is tightened onto a bolt, clamping material between
them the tendency is to stretch the bolt shank.

This action controls the clamping force up to the elastic limit of the
bolt material. Beyond this point, the bolt becomes permanently
deformed and the clamping load can no longer be relied upon.

The bolt also becomes weakened at the elastic limit and

if loaded further either during installation or in service, it will fail.
Torque measurements are derived from the force applied and the
distance from the axial centre at which it is applied;

Torque = Force x Length of Lever

It is measured in units such as pounds force/inches (lb/in, lbf.in,

inch/pounds), pounds/feet (lb/ft, lbf.ft, foot/pounds),
kilogram/metres (kg/m), newton/metres (N/m, mN).

While both imperial and metric values are quoted in maintenance

manuals nowadays, in the UK aviation industry most organisations
use imperial measurements.
The most basic method of measuring a torque value is to use a force
measuring device such as a spring balance on the end of a spanner or
wrench of known length.
Torque Wrenches

There are basically three types of torque wrench.

Flexible Beam Type

One type contains a flexible beam which bends under load.
Break Type
The second type contains a spring loaded over-centre device which
must be preset before use.

When this preset torque is reached, the wrench ‘breaks’ with

an audible click and jump. Further tightening of the fastener will
increase the torque.
The Slipper type torque wrench contains a clutch mechanism which
slips at the preset torque and prevents over-tightening.

This type is usually used on production lines and is factory set so

it cannot be adjusted by the operative.

For smaller sizes of nuts and bolts screwdriver type torque

wrenches are available which break when the set torque is reached.
Dial Measuring Type
The Dial Measuring type torque wrench uses a calibrated spring to
measure the torque, while a gear mechanism produces the dial
reading.

An overload protection rod is included to protect the mechanism,

but it will not prevent too much torque being applied.

The dial often has a follow-up needle which records the maximum
torque achieved, and sometimes a light or buzzer which operates
when a pre-determined torque is reached.
In instances where very high torque values are required, such as gas
turbine engine shaft nuts, mechanical torque multipliers and
hydraulically powered 'spanners' are used.

The torque multiplier is a gearbox which increases the input torque

value by a set factor e.g. 4x, 10x, etc.

The hydraulic torque spanner has gauges which indicate hydraulic

pressure applied and must be converted into a torque value.
These can achieve values in excess of 80,000 lb. ft. https://VID

HYDRAULIC TORQUE SPANNER

AND POWER SOURCE
Calibration of Torque Wrenches

All torque wrenches that are used on aircraft must be regularly

inspected, tested and calibrated by a facility equipped to do so.

The equipment must carry evidence of the facility that certified the
equipment and the date that it is due for recalibration/inspection.

If the calibration sticker date has expired or it is believed the

instrument is faulty do NOT use the measuring equipment but return
to the standards facility responsible for its calibration
Prior to use, a confidence check should also be performed to satisfy
the user that the wrench calibration is accurate.

Torque testing machines are available at all tool issue stores for this
purpose.
Where a Maintenance Manual does not give a specific torque loading
for a fastener it is assumed that the Standard Torque value applies.

Standard Torque tables are included in Chapter 20 - Standard

Practices of the Maintenance Manual.

Torque should be applied with a gently rising pressure, not jerks of

the wrench and pressure must be released as soon as the desired
torque is indicated.

When the torque loaded fastener is to be secured by means of a split

pin or lock wire, tighten first to the low limit of the torque range. If
necessary, tighten the fastener so that the next slot aligns with the
hole, ensuring that the maximum torque is not exceeded.
The torque wrench selected for a particular use should have a range
such that the specified torque falls within the upper range of the
scale.
Fasteners which may have been tightened beyond the maximum
specified torque value, must be removed and scrapped.

Where it is necessary to re-torque a fastener assembly, the nut must

be backed off part of a turn and re-tightened to the specified value.

Whenever a torque wrench is used, it must be confirmed that the

specified torque and the wrench are in the same units.

If they are not, then the specified torque should be converted, by

calculation, to the units shown on the wrench scale.

Any measurements taken must be taken in appropriate units.

If a torque wrench is used in conjunction with a socket type of
spanner the nut and torque wrench square drive will coincide and
the torque applied to the nut may be read directly from the wrench
scale.
However in some cases, an extension spanner or adaptor may have
to be used in conjunction with a torque wrench and the torque
applied to the nut will be different from the torque shown on the
torque wrench scale.
If this combination is used to torque load a fastener, then the
following formula must be used to calculate the torque wrench
scale reading which corresponds to the specified torque value.

Scale Reading = Specified Torque x L

L+X

L = Distance between drive and centre of handle

X = Length of extension spanner between centres
Pre-Load Indicating Washers

Precision Torque Loading

The value of the pre-load applied to a fastener by means of a torque

wrench may vary considerably and, because of this, specified torque
loadings are usually low compared with the actual strength of the
fastener.

In certain critical bolted joints the manufacturer may consider that

more accurate clamping is required and specify the use of Pre-Load
Indicating (PLI) washers.
Due to the method of tightening, Pre-Load Indicating washers can
only be used with self-locking nuts.