Chapter Two

C++ Basics
Structure of C++ Program
A C++ program has the following structure

[Preprocessor directives] #include<iostream>

[Comments] // My first program in C+
[The main function] +
 [Starting of main function] Using namespace std;
int main()
 [Body of function]
{
 [Return the function]
Cout<<“Hello World”;
 [End of the function] Return 0;
}
 // my first program in C++
 This is a comment line. All lines beginning with two slash signs (//) are considered

comments and do not have any effect on the behavior of the program.

#include <iostream>

 Lines beginning with a hash sign (#) are directives for the preprocessor.

 In this case the directive #include <iostream> tells the preprocessor to include the

iostream standard file.

 #include is a preprocessor directive that tells the preprocessor to include header files in the program

 This specific file (iostream) includes the declarations of the basic standard input-output

library in C++
 using namespace std;

 All the elements of the standard C++ library are declared within what is called a
namespace, the namespace with the name std.

 This line is very frequent in C++ programs that use the standard library

 Namespaces are used to organize code into logical groups and to prevent name
collisions that can occur especially when your code base includes multiple
libraries.
 int main ()

 This line corresponds to the beginning of the definition of the main

function.

 The main function is the point by where all C++ programs start their
execution, independently of its location within the source code.

 The word main is followed in the code by a pair of parentheses (()). That is
because it is a function declaration

 Right after these parentheses we can find the body of the main function
enclosed in braces ({}).
 Cont..
 cout << "Hello World!"; This line is a C++ statement.

 A statement is a simple or compound expression that can actually produce

some effect.

 cout represents the standard output stream in C++

 The meaning of the entire statement is to insert a sequence of characters (in

this case the Hello World sequence of characters) into the standard output
stream (which usually is the screen).

 cout is declared in the iostream standard file within the std namespace

 Notice that the statement ends with a semicolon character (;)

 return 0;

The return statement causes the main function to finish.

Return may be followed by a return code (in our example is

followed by the return code 0)

A return code of 0 for the main function is generally interpreted

as the program worked as expected without any errors during
its execution.
 IDE
An integrated development environment (IDE) is a software
application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer
programmers for software development.

An IDE normally consists of a source code editor, build automation

tools, and a debugger.

is a software application that combines all of the features and tools
needed by a software developer.
 C++ Program Development Process (PDP)
 C++ programs typically go through six phases before they can be executed. These

phases are:

1. Edit: The programmer types a C++ source program, and makes correction, if

necessary. Then file is stored in disk with extension (.cpp).

2. Pre-Processor: Pre-processing is accomplished by the preprocessor before

compilation

3. Compilation: Converting the source program into object-code.

4. Linking: A linker combines the original code with library functions to produce

an executable code.

5. Loading: The loader loads the program from the disk into memory

6. Execution: CPU Executes the program, residing in memory

 Keywords (reserved words)

Reserved/Key words have a unique meaning within a C++

program

These symbols, the reserved words, must not be used for any
other purposes

All reserved words are in lower-case letters

Example:- bool, case, break, auto, catch, char, delete, int, void, if,
…., float etc…
 Identifiers

An identifier is name associated with a function or data object

and used to refer to that function or data object. An identifier
must:
 Start with a letter or underscore

 Consist only of letters, the digits 0-9, or the underscore symbol _

 Not be a reserved word

For the purposes of C++ identifiers, the underscore symbol, _,

is considered to be a letter.
 Comments

 A comment is a piece of descriptive text which explains some aspect

of a program.

 Program comments are totally ignored by the compiler and are only
intended for human readers

 C++ provides two types of comment delimiters:

 Anything after // (until the end of the line on which it appears) is

considered a comment

 Anything enclosed by the pair /* and */ is considered a comment

 Input/ Output Statements

 The most common way in which a program communicates with the outside world
is through simple, character-oriented Input/ Output (IO) operations.

 C++ provides two useful operators for this purpose

 cin >> for input and

 cout<< for output

Example

cin>>a;

cout<<“welcome to programming” ;
 Variables

 A variable is a symbolic name for a memory location in which data can be

stored and subsequently recalled.

 Variables are used for holding data values so that they can be utilized in
various computations in a program.

 All variables have two important attributes:

 A type, which is, established when the variable is defined (e.g., integer,
float, character)
 A value, which can be changed by assigning a new value to the
variable
 Variable Declaration
 Declaring a variable means defining (creating) a variable

 You create or define a variable by stating its type, followed by one or more
spaces, followed by the variable name and a semicolon.

 The variable name can be virtually any combination of letters, but cannot
contain spaces and the first character must be a letter or an underscore

Example:-

int myAge;

 IMPORTANT- Variables must be declared before used!

 Uppercase and lowercase letters are considered to be different

 Creating More Than One Variable at a Time

 You can create more than one variable of the same type in one statement by
writing the type and then the variable names, separated by commas.

 For example:
 int myAge, myWeight; // two int variables

 long area, width, length; // three longs

 myAge and myWeight are each declared as integer variables.

 The second line declares three individual long variables named area, width,
and length.

 However keep in mind that you cannot mix types in one definition statement
 Variable initialization
 You assign a value to a variable by using the assignment operator (=)

 Thus, you would assign 5 to Width by writing

 int Width;

 Width = 5;

 You can combine these steps and initialize Width when you define it by writing

 int width = 5;
 Just as you can define more than one variable at a time, you can initialize more than one variable at
creation. For example:

// create two int variables and initialize them

 int width = 5, length = 7;

 VARIABLE SCOPE

A scope is a region of the program and broadly

speaking there are two places, where variables can be
declared:
 Inside a function or a block which is called local variables,

 Outside of all functions which is called global variables.

 Local Variables
 Variables that are declared inside a function or block are local
variables
 They can be used only by statements that are inside that function or
block of code
 Following is the example using local variables:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main ()
{
// Local variable declaration:
int a, b;
int c;
// actual initialization
a = 10;
b = 20;
c = a + b;
cout << c;
return 0;
}
 Global Variables

Global variables are defined outside of all the functions,

usually on top of the program

Following is the example using global variables:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int g = 20; // Global variable declaration:

int main ()
{
int g = 10; // Local variable declaration:

cout << g;
return 0;
}
 Basic Data Types

 When you define a variable in C++, you must tell the compiler what kind of variable
it is: an integer, a character, or …….

 Several data types are built into C++.

 The varieties of data types allow programmers to select the type appropriate to the
needs of the applications being developed

 Basic (fundamental) data types in C++ can be conveniently divided into numeric and
character types

 Numeric variables can further be divided into integer variables and floating-point
variables

 Integer variables will hold only integers whereas floating number variables can
accommodate real numbers
 C++ data types and their ranges

Type Size Values/ranges

unsigned short int 2 bytes 0 to 65,535
short int(signed short 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767
int)
unsigned long int 4 bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295
long int(signed long 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
int)
int 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned int 2 bytes 0 to 65,535
signed int 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767
Char 1 byte 256 character values
Float 4 bytes 3.4e-38 to 3.4e38
Double 8 bytes 1.7e-308 to 1.7e308
long double 10 bytes 1.2e-4932 to 1.2e4932
 Type int

 represent integers or whole numbers

 Some rules to follow

 Plus signs do not need to be written before the number

 Minus signs must be written when using negative #’s

 Decimal points cannot be used

 Commas cannot be used

 Leading zeros should be avoided

 Signed - negative or positive

 Unsigned - positive

 Short

 Long
Type double, float

 used to represent real numbers

 many programmers use type float

 avoid leading zeros, trailing zeros are ignored

 long double

Type char

 used to represent character data

 a single character which includes a space

 1 byte, enough to hold 256 values

 Must be enclosed in single quotes eg. ‘d’

 Escape sequences treated as single char

 Cont..
‘\n’ newline
‘\’’ apostrophe
‘\”’ double quote
‘\t’ tab
 Type String

Used to represent textual information

String constants must be enclosed in double quotation

marks eg. “Hello world!”
empty string “”

new line char or string “\n”

“the word \”hello\”” (puts quotes around “hello” )

The following program reads the four different data type

inputs and outputs listed on the above.
#include<iostream>
Output:
int main( ) Number=3
{ Character=a
Real number=34.45
int num=3; String=hello
cout << “number=”<<num<<”\n”;
char ch=’a’;
cout << “character=”<<ch<<”\n”;
float fa=-34.45;
cout<<”real number=”<<fa<<”\n”;
string name= “hello”;
cout<<”string=”<<name<<”\n”;
return 0;
}
 Defining Constants

 There are two simple ways in C++ to define constants

 Using #define preprocessor.

 Using const keyword

The #define Preprocessor

 Following is the form to use #defines preprocessor to define a constant

#define identifier value

Following example explains it in detail

#include <iostream.h>
#define LENGTH 10
#define WIDTH 5
#define NEWLINE '\n'
int main() {
int area;
area = LENGTH * WIDTH;
cout << area;
cout << NEWLINE;
return 0; 50
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it

produces the following result
 The const Keyword

You can use const prefix to declare constants with a

specific type as follows
const type variable = value;

Following example explains it in detail:

#include <iostream.h>
int main() {
const int LENGTH = 10;
const int WIDTH = 5;
const char NEWLINE = '\n';
int area;
area = LENGTH * WIDTH; Output
cout << area; 50
cout << NEWLINE;
return 0;
}
 Operators
 An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific
mathematical or logical manipulations.

 Operators are symbols that perform operations on variables and values

 C++ is rich in built-in operators and provide the following types of

operators
 Assignment Operators

 Arithmetic Operators

 Relational and equality operators

 Logical operators

 Conditional operator

 Bitwise Operators
 Assignment Operators (=)

 The assignment operator assigns a value to a variable.

a = 5;

 This statement assigns the integer value 5 to the variable a

 The part at the left of the assignment operator (=) is known as the lvalue
(left value) and the right one as the rvalue (right value).

 The lvalue has to be a variable where as the rvalue can be either a

constant, a variable, the result of an operation or any combination of
these
Compound assignment (+=, -=, *=, /=, %=, >>=, <<=, &=, ^=, |=)

Operator Example Equivalent To

= n = 25
+= n += 25 n = n + 25
-= n -= 25 n = n – 25
*= n *= 25 n = n * 25
/= n /= 25 n = n / 25
%= n %= 25 n = n % 25
&= n &= 0xF2F2 n = n & 0xF2F2
|= n |= 0xF2F2 n = n | 0xF2F2
^= n ^= 0xF2F2 n = n ^ 0xF2F2
<<= n <<= 4 n = n << 4
>>= n >>= 4 n = n >> 4
 Arithmetic Operators

 C++ provides five basic arithmetic operators

Operator Name Example
+ Addition 12 + 4.9 // gives 16.9
- Subtraction 3.98 - 4 // gives -0.02
* Multiplication 2 * 3.4 // gives 6.8
/ Division 9 / 2.0 // gives 4.5
% Remainder 13 % 3 //gives 1
Arithmetic operators.

 Modulo is the operation that gives the remainder of a division of two values.
For example, if we write:
a = 11 % 3; 2
 Increase and decrease (++, --)

 the increase operator (++) and the decrease operator (--) increase or
reduce by one the value stored in a variable c++;
c+=1;
c=c+1;
 They are equivalent to +=1 and to -=1, respectively

 Are all equivalent in its functionality: the three of them increase by one
the value of c

 A characteristic of this operator is that it can be used both as a prefix and

as a suffix
 That means that it can be written either before the variable identifier (++a) or after it (a+

+)

 a++ or ++a both have exactly the same meaning

 a prefix (++a) the value is increased before

 a suffix (a++) the value stored in a is increased after being evaluated

 In Example 1, B is increased before its value is copied to A. While in Example 2, the

value of B is copied to A and then B is increased

 Relational and equality operators ( ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= )

In order to evaluate a comparison between two expressions

we can use the relational and equality operators

The result of a relational operation is a Boolean value that

can only be true or false
 Logical operators ( !, &&, || )

 The Operator ! is the C++ operator to perform the Boolean operation NOT
 producing false if its operand is true and true if its operand is false

 && Operator
 The operator && corresponds with Boolean logical operation AND
 This operation results true if both its two operands are true, and false otherwise
a b A&&b
True True True
True False False
False True False
false False False
 || operator

 The operator || corresponds with Boolean logical operation OR

 This operation results true if either one of its two operands is true,

 Thus being false only when both operands are false themselves
a b a || b
True True True
True False True
False True True
false False False
 Conditional operator ( ? )

 The conditional operator evaluates an expression returning a value if that expression is

true and a different one if the expression is evaluated as false

 Its format is:

 condition ? result1 : result2

 If condition is true the expression will return result1, if it is not it will return result2

Example:-

7 == 5 ? 4:3 //returns 3, since 7 is not equal to 5.

7 == 5+2 ? 4:3 //returns 4, since 7 is equal to 5+2.

// conditional operator
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main ()
{
int a,b,c;
a=2; Output
7
b=7;
c = (a>b) ? a : b;
cout << c;
return 0;
}
 Bitwise Operators
 Bitwise AND (&) takes two numbers as operands and does AND on every bit of two numbers. The result of
AND is 1 only if both bits are 1.

 Bitwise OR ( | ) takes two numbers as operands and does OR on every bit of two numbers. The result of
OR is 1 if any of the two bits is 1.

 Bitwise XOR (^ ) takes two numbers as operands and does XOR on every bit of two numbers. The result
of XOR is 1 if the two bits are different.

 Left shift (<<) takes two operands, left shifts the bits of the first operand, the second operand decides the
number of places to shift.

 Right shift (>>) takes two operands, right shifts the bits of the first operand, the second operand decides
the number of places to shift.

 Bitwise NOT (~ ) takes one number and inverts all bits of it

 #include <iostream>
int main()
{
unsigned int a = 5, b = 9; // a = 5(00000101), b = 9(00001001)

cout<< "a&b = “ << a & b;

Output
cout<< "a|b = " << a | b;

cout<< "a^b = " << a ^ b; a&b = 1

a|b = 13
cout<< "~a = "<< a = ~a;
a^b = 12
cout<< "b<<1 = " << b << 1; ~a = 250
cout<< "b>>1 = " << b >> 1; b<<1 = 18
return 0;
b>>1 = 4
}
 Precedence of operators

When writing complex expressions with several

operands,
 we may have some doubts about which operand is
evaluated first and which later
Example:-
a = 5+7 % 2
Precedence of operators
Category Operator Associativity

Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right

Unary ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left

Multiplicative */% Left to right

Additive +- Left to right
Shift << >> Left to right
Relational < <= > >= Left to right
Equality == != Left to right
Bitwise AND & Left to right
Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right
Bitwise OR | Left to right
Logical AND && Left to right
Logical OR || Left to right
Conditional ?: Right to left
Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= Right to left
^= |=
 Precedence of operators

Exercise: find the value of A based on precedence

rule.
a = 20 - 4 / 5 * 2 + 3 * 5 % 4
THE END