v(t)

R L
x(t)

e(t) C vc (t)
M
M F(t)
i(t)
Zero Friction

x2
x2
x3
X(t0) • X(t)
t- O
inc
rea x1
sin X(t1)
g

x1 xn-1 xn
O

x3
R L

e(t) C
i(t)

+ R R

u C C

v2 v1
+ R R

u C C
i1 i2
-
 Ra La
+
if = Constant

e eb
ia
θ J, B
-

U(s)
+ 1/s 5
+

-0
Y(s)
+
+
1/s -10
+
-1

+ 1/s 5
+
-2

1
3

U(s) 1/s 1/s 1/s Y(s)

1
• 3
• • 1
• • 1
• • 1
• 1
-2
-3
-1
 -5

+
+
+  dt
2
3

+
U(s) Y(s)

5 -1

+
++  dt 2

-1

U(s) Y(s)
+-
 B3

B2 X3(s)
U(s) X1(s) +
+- + +
X2(s) B1
Y(s)

U(s)
5 + 1/s
+
-0
Y(s)
-10 +
+
1/s
+
-1

5 + 1/s
+
-2
 b0

b1
b2

U(s) 1/s 1/s 1/s Y(s)

1
• • • 1
• • 1
• • 1
• 1
b3
-a1
-a2
-a3

U(s)
C1 + 1/s
+
λ1
Y(s)
C2 +
+
1/s
+
λ2

C3 + 1/s
+
λ3
b0

U(s)
+ 1/s C1
+
λ1
Y(s)
+
+
1/s C2
+
λ2

+ 1/s C3
+
λ3
b0
U(s)
+ 1/s + 1/s
+ +
C1
λ1 λ1

Y(s)
C2
+
+ 1/s C3
+

λ3
b0

U(s) 1/s 1/s Y(s)

1
• 1
• • 1
• • 1
• 1

-2

-1
 jω jv q(s)-plane
s-plane

.
j1 F (1+j). . A (3+j)
q(s) = s-2 → mapping
F’(-1+j). . j1
. A’(1+j)

function

0
E (1+j0)
. 1
.2
.
3
B (3+j0)
σ
.
E’(-1+j0)
-1 0
.
1
B’(1+j0)
.
2 u

.
-j1 D (1-j)
. . C(3-j) D’(-1-j). . -j1
. C’(1-j)

jω jv q(s)-plane
s-plane

j1 . F (1+j). . A (3+j) D’(-1+j) . . j1

. C’(1+j)

0
E (1+j0)
. 1
. 2
.
3
B (3+j0)
σ
E’(-1+j0)
. -1 0
.
1
B’(1+j0)
.
2 u

-j1 . D (1-j)
. . C(3-j) F’(-1-j)
. . -j1
. A’(1-j)
 q(s)-plane
jω s-plane jv (or)
+j∞ GH-plane

jθ 1
C1 Re ∞ C2 GH

1+
R→

GH
0 σ -1+j0 0 u

Tq(s) - Contour

TGH - Contour
-j∞

q(s)-plane
jω s-plane jv (or)
+j∞ GH-plane

Mapping Function
jθ C2
C1 R e∞
R→

0+
0- 0
σ
ω= 0-
ω= 0+
.2 .
-1+j0
.
0 ω=-∞
ω=+∞ u

C3 .
ω= 2

-j∞

Im- Axis
Phase angle
of -1+jω
jω
-1+
jω
θ
π
-1
β
0
. Re- Axis
 s-plane jv q(s) (or) GH-plane
jω
+j∞

jθ C2
C1 R e∞
R→
ω= 0-

.
0+
C4 . .
0 ω=+∞
хх

0 -1+j0 ω=-∞ u
r ejδ σ 10.67
0 -
r→0
ω= 0+
C3
Mapping Function

-j∞

jv q(s) (or) GH-plane

+
ω= 0
jω s-plane
+j∞

C1 R e∞
jθ C2
.
..
R→
0 +

ххх
C4 0 ω=-∞
0 -2K -1+j0 ω=+∞ u
re jδ
σ
0 -
r→0 Mapping Function
C3

-j∞

ω= 0-
 q(s) (or) GH-plane q(s) (or) GH-plane
+ +
ω= 0 ω= 0

. .
..
-1+j0 2K< 1
0 ω=-∞
ω=+∞ u
..
2K> 1 -1+j0
0 ω=-∞
ω=+∞ u

ω= 0- ω= 0-

jv q(s) (or) GH-plane

+
ω= 0
jω s-plane
+j∞

C1 R e∞
jθ C2
.
..
R→
0 +

ххх
C4 0 ω=-∞
0 -2K -1+j0 ω=+∞ u
re jδ
σ
0 -
r→0 Mapping Function
C3

-j∞

ω= 0-
 jω jω
X System A X System B

0 σ 0 σ

X X

y(t)
y(t) y(t)
y(t)

1 r(t)
1 r(t)

0
·
ts t 0
t

jv
jv
System A
System B

.
(-1+j0)
0 u .
(-1+j0)

t
0 u
ot

lo
-P
) - Pl

)
(jω
)H
) H ( jω

j( ω
G
G ( jω
 - 270°
jv

Unit Circle

. .
a
(-1+j0) ωp 0°
- 180° 0 u
ϕ

.
1

ωg

G(jω) H(jω) - Plot

- 90°

jv jv
System 1 System 2

.
(-1+j0)
0 u
.
(-1+j0) 0 u
ot

- Plot
) - Pl

H( jω)
) H ( jω

G( jω)
G ( jω

Non-encirclement of (-1+j0) G(jω)H(jω) Plot

point by G(jω)H(jω) Plot encircles (-1+j0) point

So, System 1 is Stable So, System 2 is Unstable

 .
х

х
- 180°

0
jω
(-1+j0)

σ
ω
g =4
.
.0 42 0
Unit Circle

=1

) H( jω
)–P lot fo
r K=5
.3 . 40°
ωp

0
G( jω ϕ= =1
ω ωp
g =0
. .

.9 8 6°
.
- 270°

ϕ=7 a=0.04
G(jω) H(jω) – Plot for
K=1 1
0
jv

- 90°

0
jω

х
1
0°
u

2
.
4
х
σ
U(s) Y(s)
+-

jω

Lag Lead

s = - 100 s = - 0.1
х х
s = - 10 s=-1 0 σ

jω jω

z-plane axis
s-plane axis

-1 0 σ
 - 270°
jv

Unit Circle

.
a=0.5
- 180°
(-1+j0)
. 0
0°
u

.3
=6 p
ω
t for
) – Plo H( jω
G( jω)

- 90°

- 270°
jv

Unit Circle

(-1+j0)
. . 0
0°
30°

- 180° u
ϕ=

.
=K
g
ω

1 . 04 7
or K =
Plot f )– H ( jω
G( jω)

- 90°
R(s) K C(s)
+-
s(s  a)

 jω

K s-plane
a

s
s+

a2
K
4
2 1
σ
x x0
K=0 K=0
a2
K
4
X – denotes O L P
a a
2 2

a2
K
4

R(s) C(s)
+- G (s)

H (s)
U(s) Y(s)
+-

jω
jω

z-plane axis
s-plane axis

0 σ

-σ

jω
jω

z-plane axis
s-plane axis

-1 0 σ

-1
 R(s) K ( s  1)( s  2) C(s)
+- G ( s) 
s ( s  3)( s  4)

jω

s-plane

Terminating Points of
Root Loci

K X= 0 K=0 K=∞ K=∞ K=0 σ

X X
∞ K -4 -3 -2 -1 0

Originating Points of
Root Loci X – denotes O L P
– denotes O L Z
 jv
-
ω= 0 q(s) (or)
jω s-plane GH-plane

+j∞

jθ C2
C1 R e∞

..
R→
0+
ххх
C4 -1+j0 0 ω=+∞
0 ω=-∞ u
re jδ
σ Mapping

7
.70
0 -
Function

=0
r→0

ω
C3 1
G (s) H (s)  a = 0.667
s (1  s )(1  2s )
-j∞

ω= 0+

jv
-
ω= 0 q(s) (or)
jω s-plane GH-plane

+j∞

jθ C2
C1 R e∞

.
R→

.
0+
ххх
C4 -1+j0 0 ω=+∞
0 ω=-∞ u
re jδ
σ Mapping .1 62
0 -
r→0 Function =3
ω

C3 1
G (s)  a = 0.0909
s (1  0.1s )(1  s )
-j∞

ω= 0+