BASIC OPTICS

REFRACTION OF LIGHT

 Phenomenon of change in the path of light,

when it goes from one medium to another.
 Laws of refraction: called snell’s laws of
refraction.
 Total internal reflection and critical angle: this
principle is used in applanation tonometer
and gonioscope.
 Prism
 A prism is a refracting medium, having two plane
surfaces, inclined at an angle. The greater the angle
formed by the two surfaces at the apex, the greater
is the prismatic effect.
 The prism produces displacement of objects seen
through it towards the apex (away from the base).
 The power of a prism is measured in prism diopters.
Uses of prisms in ophthalmology

 1. Objective measurement of angle of deviation in

squint (PBCT and Krimsky’s test)
 2. Measurement of fusional reserves
 3. Used in ophthalmic instruments like gonioscope,
keratometer, applanation tonometer.
 4. Therapeutically, prisms are prescribed in patients
with phorias and diplopia.
Lenses

 A Lens is a transparent refracting medium,

bounded by two surfaces which form a part of a
sphere(spherical lens) or a cylinder (Cylindrical
lens).
Cardinal data of a lens
 1. Centre of curvature ( C ): of the spherical lens is
the centre of sphere of which the refracting lens
surface is a part.
2. Radius of curvature is the radius of that same
sphere.
 3. The principal axis of the lens is the line joining the
centres of curvatures of its surfaces.
 4. Optical centre (O) of the lens is the point on the
principal axis in the lens, the rays passing from
where do not undergo deviation.
contd
 5. The principal focus (F) of a lens is that point on
the principal axis where parallel rays of light, after
passing through the lens converge (in convex lens)
or appear to diverge ( in concave lens).
 6. The focal length (f) of a lens is the distance
between optical centre and principal focus.
 7. Power of a lens (P): ability of a lens to converge a
beam of light falling on the lens. It is +ve for plus
lenses and –ve for minus lenses. It is measured as
reciprocal of focal length in metres. Means P = 1/f.
unit of power is Diopters.
Types of lenses
 Lenses are of two types: spherical and cylindrical.
 1. Spherical lenses are two types, convex and
concave.
 Convex lens (+) is a converging lens. It may be
biconvex, planoconvex or concavo-convex lens
Identification of a convex
lens
 1. it is thick at the centre and thin at the
periphery.
 2. an object held close to the lens, appears
magnified.
 3. When the convex lens is moved, the object
seen through it moves in the opposite
direction of the lens.
Uses of convex lens

 1. used for correction of refractive errors like

hypermetropia, aphakia and presbyopia.
 2. as a magnifying lens.
 3. in direct and indirect ophthalmoscopy
 4. in fundus examination in the form of 90D
lens.
 5. in corneal loupe.
Image formed by a convex
lens
Concave lens

 Concave (-) lens is a diverging lens. It is of

three types: biconcave, plano-concave and
convexo-concave (meniscus)
Identification of a concave
lens

 1. it is thin at the centre and thick at the periphery.

 2. an object seen through it appears minified.
 3. when the lens is moved, the object seen through
it moves in the same direction of the lens.
 Uses of concave lens

 1. correction of myopia
 2. in Hruby lens for fundus examination.
 3. in direct ophthalmoscopy
Image formed by a concave
lens
Cylindrical lens (toric lens)
 A cylindrical lens acts only in one axis i.e, power is
incorporated in only one axis, the other axis is
having zero power. A cylindrical lens may be
convex(+) or concave (-).
 the axis of a cylindrical lens is parallel to the axis of
the cylinder of which it is a part.
 The cylindrical lens has a power only in the
direction at right angles to its axis. Therefore
parallel rays of light after passing through a
cylindrical lens do not come to a point focus but
form a focal line.
Identification of a cylindrical
lens

 1. when the cylindrical lens is rotated around its

optical axis, the object seen through it becomes
distorted.
 2. the cylindrical lens acts only in one axis, so when
it is moved up and down or sideways, the objects
will move with the lens (in concave cylinder) or
opposite to the lens (in convex cylinder) only in
ONE DIRECTION.
 Uses of cylindrical lens

 1. in the correction of astigmatism

 2. as a cross cylinder to varify the refraction
subjectively.
Sturm’s conoid

 The configuration of rays refracted through a toric

surface is called Sturm’s conoid.
Optics of the eye
 As an optical instrument, the eye is compared to a
camera with retina acting as a film.
 The focussing system of the eye is composed of
several refracting structures which include the
cornea (1.37), aqueous humor (1.33), lens (1.42) and
the vitreous humor (1.33).
 This together constitutes a homocentric system of
lenses, which when combined in action form a
strong refracting system of short focal length.
contd
 The total diopteric power of the eye is about +60D
of which +44D is contributed by cornea and +16D is
by the lens.
 Cardinal points of the eye: Listing and Gauss while
studying refraction by the lens combinations,
concluded that for a homocentric lens system, there
exists 3 pairs of cardinal points, which are 2 principal
foci, 2 principal points and 2 nodal points.
Therefore, when the eye is analized optically like a
homocentric system can be resolved into six
cardinal points (Schematic eye)
Schematic eye
contd
 The cardinal points in the schematic eye as
described by Gullstrand are as follows:
 1. Total diopteric power of the eye is +58D, of which
+43D is by cornea and +15D is by lens.
 2. the principal foci F1 & F2 lie 15.7mm in front of
and 24.4mm behind the cornea respectively.
 3. the principal points P1 & P2 lie in the anterior
chamber, 1.35mm and 1.60mm behind the anterior
surface of the cornea, respectively.
 4. the nodal points N1 & N2, lie in the posterior
chamber of the lens, 7.08mm and 7.33mm behind
the anterior surface of the cornea respectively.
The reduced eye

 Listing, for understanding the optics of the

eye simplified the schematic eye data by
choosing the single principal point and single
nodal point lying midway between two
principal points and two nodal points
respectively. This is called Listing’s reduced
eye. The simplified data of this reduced eye is
as under:
contd
 Total diopteric power is +60D
 The principal point (P) lies 1.5mm behind the
anterior surface of the cornea.
 The nodal point (N) is situated 7.2mm behind the
anterior surface of the cornea.
 The anterior focal point is 15.7mm in front of the
anterior surface of the cornea.
 The posterior focal point is 24.4 mm behind the
anterior surface of the cornea.
 The anterior focal length is 17.2mm (15.7+1.5) and
posterior focal length is 22.9mm (24.4 – 1.5).
Axes and visual angles of the
eye
 The eye has 3 principal axes & 3 visual angles:
 1. axes of the eyes:
 a) Optical axis: line passing through the centre of
cornea, centre of lens and meets the retina nasal to
the fovea
 b) Visual axis: line joining the fixation point, nodal
point of the lens and the fovea
 c) Fixation axis: line joining the fixation point and
centre of rotation.
Visual angles

 1. Angle alpha: angle formed b/n the optical axis

and visual axis at the nodal point of the lens.
 2. Angle gamma: angle b/n the optical axis and
fixation axis at the centre of rotation of the eye ball.
 3. Angle kappa: angle b/n the visual axis and
pupillary axis.
Optical aberrations of the normal eye

 The eye in common with other optical systems in

practical use, is by no means perfect optically. The
lapses from perfection are called aberrations. They
include
 1. Diffraction of light
 2. Spherical aberrations
 3. Chromatic aberrations
 4. Decentring
 5. Oblique aberrations.
 6. Coma
Astigmatism

 Is a type of refractive error where wherein

refraction varies in the different meridia.
Consequently, the rays of light entering the eye
cannot converge onto a point focus but form focal
lines.
 Broadly, there are 2 types of astigmatism, regular
and irregular.
Regular astigmatism
 The astigmatism is regular when the refractive
power changes uniformly from one meridian to
another (i.e, there are two principal meridia)
 Etiology:
 1. Corneal astigmatism: is due to abnormalities in
the curvature of the cornea. M/C cause.
 2. Lenticular astigmatism: rare due to lens
 3. Retinal astigmatism: rarely due to oblique
placement of the macula.
Types of regular astigmatism
 Depending upon the axis and the angle between
the two principal meridia, it can be classified into:
 1. with the rule (WTR) astigmatism: here the two
principal meridia are placed right angles to each
other and the vertical meridian is more curved than
the horizontal. This is called with the rule, because
similar astigmatic condition exists normally (the
vertical meridian is normally rendered 0.25D more
convex than horizontal meridian by the lid action)
contd
 2. Against the rule (ATR) astigmatism: here
horizontal meridian is more curved than the vertical
meridian.
 3. Oblique astigmatism: is a type of astigmatism
where the two principal meridia are at right angles
but not vertical or horizontal (ex 45* and 135*).
 4. Bioblique astigmatism: here the two principal
meridia are not at right angles to each other.
Refractive types of regular
astigmatism

 Depending upon the position of the two focal lines

in relation to the retina, the regular astigmatism is
further classified into 3 types:
 1. Simple astigmatism
 2. Compound astigmatism
 3. Mixed astigmatism
contd
 Simple astigmatism: wherein the rays are focussed
on the retina in one meridian and either in front
(simple myopic astigmatism) or behind (simple
hypermetropic astigmatism) the retina in other
meridian.
 Compound astigmatism: in this type the rays of
light in both the meridia are focussed in front or
behind the retina and is called compound myopic
and compound hypermetropic astigmatism
respectively.
contd

 Mixed astigmatism: here light rays are focussed in

front of the retina in one meridian and behind the
retina in another meridian. In these types of cases
symptoms are less because the circle of least
diffusion is formed on to the retina usually.
Signs and symptoms
 Symptoms include: blurring of objects, defective
vision and asthenopic symptoms.
 Signs:
 1. different power is seen on retinoscopy in two
meridia.
 2. there may be oval or tilted disc in high astigmats.
 3. head tilt
 4. Half closure of lids like myopesto get greater
clarity of images.
Investigations

 1. Retinoscopy reveals diff powers in 2 meridians.

 2. Keratometry and corneal topography shows
corneal curvature differences in different meridians.
 Treatment
 Optical treatment: prescribe appropriate
cylindrical lenses. Purpose is to bring the circle
of least diffusion onto the retina.
 Contact lenses may be prescribed.
 Surgery can be done.
Irregular astigmatism

 It is characterized by an irregular change in the

power in different meridia. There are multiple
meridia which admit no geometrical analysis.
 Types:
 1. curvatural irregular: seen in keratoconus
 2. index irregular: due to varying ref index of lens
occurs rarely during maturation of a lens.
 Treatment

 Optical: contact lenses which replace the cornea

as the anterior surface of refraction.
 PTK can be done.