The Functioning Brain

Introduction to neurons
● Our behavior, actions and thoughts are a product of interaction between
complex systems of cells, chemicals and organs.
● All organisms have cells. So, all organs within the human body also have
cells, like heart cells, liver cells, brain cells, etc.
● Nervous system is one such complex arrangement of cells. It contains millions
of neurons and trillions of neural connections.
● The network of cells in the nervous system carries information to and from all
parts of the body
● There are two kinds of cells in the nervous system. They are neurons and glial
cells.
● A neuron is the basic cell of the nervous system (nerve cell). It is responsible
for transmitting information to and from the brain. For example, nerve cells
carry information to the brain from our eyes, or ears. Nerve cells also carry
back response from brain to the body, like muscle movements. It generates
electrical impulses known as nerve impulse.
● In other words, neurons help us to feel, taste, see, move, feel emotions,
remember and communicate.
● Also, each neuron has a different chemical makeup resulting in complex
behaviors. It is very difficult to ascertain the exact number of neurons in a
person and the number also differs from one person to the other.
● According to Williams & Harrup (1988) there are approximately 100 billion
neurons in an adult human brain. There are 12 to 15 billion neurons in cerebral
cortex and associated areas, 70 billion neurons in cerebellum, and nearly 1
billion neurons in spinal cord. Neurons are of varied shapes and sizes.
● Glial cells support and protect neurons.
Structure and functions of Neurons

● The cells of the nervous system that receive and send messages
within that system are known as neurons.
● Neurons receive and process information to and from the brain.
● The electrical signal that the neuron conducts is known as a nerve
impulse.
● They are in varying size and shapes having varied functions to
perform.
● The neuron structure is related to its functions. A typical neuron has
the soma or the cell-body, axon, terminal buttons. The plasma
membrane of the neuron is the double layer of phospho-lipid
molecules that is semipermeable to certain kinds of substances.
● The plasma membrane controls the movement of the substances
through it, hence it is involved in the nerve impulse.It also provides
sites for electrical activity that occurs during nerve impulse and for
synaptic activity between two neurons.

● The cell body is the largest part of the neuron that has number of
organelles floating in its cytoplasm such as golgi body, nissl bodies,
mitochondria, rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, etc.
● The cell body is the metabolic center of
the neuron and is also called the soma (the
word soma means body). There is a
nucleus in the centre.
● The dendrites (dendrite means 'tree-like')
are the extensions from the cell-body
which look like branches of a tree.
● The dendrite tips have sensory receptors
that receive the stimuli from other neurons
and begin the process of nerve impulse by
sending these impulses to the cell body.
● The axon is a long slender part of the
neuron that extends from a portion of the
cell-body known as axon hillock. Axon
hillock is a cone-shaped region at the
junction between axon and the cellbody.
● It is often covered by the myelin sheath and carries information from the cell
body towards its distal ends known as terminal buttons.
● Myelin sheath is fatty insulation around many axons. The axons vary in length
and diameter, with larger diameter indicating faster action potentials,
influencing neural conduction.
● The axon may have branches known as axon collaterals.
● Axon hillock is a cone-shaped region at the junction between axon and the
cellbody. It is often covered by the myelin sheath and carries information from
the cell body towards its distal ends known as terminal buttons. Myelin sheath
is fatty insulation around many axons. The axons vary in length and diameter,
with larger diameter indicating faster action potentials, influencing neural
conduction. The axon may have branches known as axon collaterals.
● A brief chemical or electrical message that begins from the cell-body, travels
down the axon to the terminal buttons is known as an action potential.
● When the axons divide at the rear end, it branches profusely and each branch
ends in a knob.These are known as terminal buttons.
● When the action potential travels down the axon it reaches the terminal
buttons, where a chemical substance is released known as neurotransmitter.
The function of the neurotransmitters is to either increase or reduce the
activity of the receiving neuron.
● Although neurons are present in large numbers in the brain, there are other
primary cells that provide support to the neurons, known as neuroglia, glial
cells or glia.
● Glial cells also affect thinking, learning, memory, perception and help in
maintaining a state of homeostasis of nervous system.
● Homeostasis is defined as a self-regulating process by which a living organism
can maintain internal stability while adjusting to changing external conditions.
● Glial cells deliver nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to coat axons, clean up
waste products and dead neurons, help in information processing and influence
the generation of new neurons during prenatal development.
● The role of glial cells in neurodevelopmental disorders, like Autism Spectrum
Disorder, degenerative disorder, like Alzeihmer Disorder and psychiatric
disorders like major depressive disorder and schizophrenia, is being investigated
by neuroscientists.
● There are four main types of glial cells. They are oligodendrocytes, schwann
cells, microglia, and astrocytes.
● Oligodendrocytes produce myelin for neurons in the brain and spinal cord (the
central nervous system) and Schwann Cells produce the myelin sheath around
the neurons of the body (the peripheral nervous system).
● Myelin protects the shaft of the axon as well as it gives support. Such nerve
fibers are known as myelinated fibers.
● There are certain gaps between the myelin sheath which are known as Nodes
of Ranvier.

● Microglial cells are involved in inflammation response, that is protecting the

brain from invading microorganisms. Astrocytes clean up the waste material
of dying neurons.
Classification and Types of Neuron

● There are different types of neurons. Each type has different functions to perform.
We know that neurons vary in their size and shape. Neurons are also classified
according to their structure and function.There are three kinds of neurons that are
classified according to their structure. The classification is based on the number of
processes (projections) emerging from the cell body.
● Unipolar neurons have one axon that separates from the soma and branches
into two. These neurons are involved in sensory functions. They send
impulses received from the environment to the central nervous system
● The bipolar neurons are sensory neurons.They have one axon and one dendrite which is profusely
branched like a tree.The dendrite is placed at the opposite end of the soma.They are very few and
are the kinds that are present in the retina of the eye, the inner ear and in the olfactory path.
● The multipolar neurons have only one axon but several dendrites. They are most
commonly found in the brain and spinal cord.
● They are further classified as Golgi Type I and Golgi Type II neurons
depending upon the length of their axons and how much they branch.
● They are most commonly found in the brain and spinal cord.They are further
classified as Golgi Type I and Golgi Type II neurons depending upon the
length of their axons and how much they branch.
● Golgi Type II neurons are very short whereas in Type I axons range from
feets to inches.
Neurons are also classified into types based on their functioning, afferent neurons,
efferent neurons, and interneurons.

● Afferent neurons are the sensory neurons that carry the nerve impulses to the
Central Nervous System (CNS). They are affected by the changes in the
environment.
● The efferent neurons take the impulses away from the brain or the spinal cord to
the muscles or glands.They are also known as the motor neurons.
● The inter-neurons lie within the CNS.They carry information from the afferent
neurons towards the efferent neurons (inside the spinal cord and much of the
brain).

Neurons are placed in the form of a reflex arc to conduct impulses to and from the brain
and spinal cord.The most common reflex is the one that consists of an afferent neuron, an
interneuron and an efferent neuron.
Functions of a Neuron

● Neurons are involved in all reflex actions ranging from simple and complex
problem solving to communication between sensory and motor neurons. No
behavior is possible without the appropriate functioning of the neurons.
● For example, if we are able to see an object, it is possible because the receptors in
the eye communicate this to the brain which helps us to perceive things clearly.
● Similarly, when we hold a glass in our hand, it is possible only because of the
coordination of the sensory neuron with the motor neuron which signals the
muscles to hold the glass.
● There is an intricate network of connections between these neurons in the brain and
spinal cord that makes possible the proper functioning of the body. There are
genetic as well as environmental factors that influence the development of the
nervous system.
ii. Neural Conduction:

● A neuron that is at rest, that is not firing a nerve impulse or a message, is actually
electrically charged.
● There is a jelly-like solution inside and outside the cell which consists of charged
particles known as ions.
● There are electrical charges across the neural membranes which constitute the positively
charged ions, known as cations and negatively charged ions known as anions.
● Both positive and negative charged ions are present inside and outside the cell. There
are mostly negatively charged ions inside the cell and positively charged ions outside
the cell. This is because of diffusion (the process of ions moving from areas of high
concentration to areas of low concentration) and electrostatic pressure (the balance of
electrical charges when the ions are at rest).
● The positively charged ions are sodium (Na+), Calcium (Ca2+), Potassium (K+) and
chloride (Cl-).
● There is relatively more positive charge next to the plasma membrane on the outside and
a relatively more negative charge on the inside of the membrane.
● This difference in electrical charge across the membrane is known as the membrane
potential.
● In an inactive state the neuron is said to be resting.It displays membrane potential or
resting potential of -70mV. This is known as resting membrane potential.
● The magnitude of the potential difference is measured in volts (V) or millivolts (mV).
● The Resting Membrane Potential (RMP) is maintained with the help of principle of
diffusion, electrostatic pressure, ion channels, and sodium potassium pump.
The ionic basis off resting potential
● The nerve impulse is brief and it goes through the cell body to the axon to the
terminal buttons
● When there is a stimulus at the spike initiating region that reaches the threshold of
excitation, it depolarizes the membrane
● This leads the sodium ions to move into the cell with the help of forces of diffusion or
via electrostatic pressure. This makes the inside of the membrane more positive with
respect to outside for a temporary period of time from -70 mV to +50mV.
● The action potential (electrical charge reversal at a particular point along the axon)
reaches its peak in about 1 millisecond. No more sodium can enter the cell and
potassium ions start leaving the cell. This causes the membrane potential to restore
itself to its resting state.
Ion channels: Ion channels are present in the membranes of all excitable cells. It can be defined as
pore-forming membrane proteins that allow ions to pass through the channel pore. They are
responsible for establishing a resting membrane potential, shaping action potentials and other
electrical signals by gating the flow of ions across the cell membrane, controlling the flow of ions
across secretory and epithelial cells (type of cells found near the surfaces of the body, eg. skin,
organs, urinary tract and blood vessels), and regulating cell volume.

Sodium potassium pump: Also known as Na+/K+ pump. It is an enzyme found in the plasma
membrane of all animal cells. In cellular physiology, it is responsible for maintaining the internal
concentration of potassium ions [K+] higher than that in the surrounding medium (blood, body
fluid, water) and maintains the internal concentration of sodium ions [Na+] lower than that of the
surrounding medium.
● The action potential is an all-or-none phenomenon, such that whenever it is initiated, it
goes down the axon to its terminal buttons or it does not occur at all.
● Thus, information is sent down axons via small electrical impulses called action potentials.
● The amplitude or the size of the nerve impulse depends upon the particular neuron as well
as the rate at which the neuron conducts impulses.
● When the potassium ions begin leaving the cell it causes a state of depolarization of the
membrane. Once enough positively charged potassium ions are released out of the cell, the
membrane reaches its resting state.
● Sometimes too many potassium ions leave the cell, thus making the membrane slightly
hyperpolarized, but then the potassium channels close making the membrane potential
reach its normal resting state again.
Synaptic Transmission

● The information passes from one neuron to another through the synapse.So, the
action potential reaches the end of the axon, it reaches the terminal boutons.The
point where the terminal button from one neuron contacts with the dendrite of
another neuron is known as a synapse.
● Information passes at these junctions formed with the next neuron. Synapses occur
at three places on the next neuron, mainly on the dendrites, soma or axons. Thus,
synapses are known as axondendritic, axosomatic, and axoaxonic synapses.
● There are two kinds of synapses, electrical synapses and chemical synapses.
● The electrical synapses are rare.In this case, the information from the transmitting neuron is
sent to the next neuron via certain channels that come close to one another. By coming next
to one another, the ions pass through the neurons easily and more efficiently. They are direct
and operate more quickly sending information in either direction.
● Chemical synapses involve the transfer of neurotransmitters from one neuron to the other.
When the membrane of the cell that sends the information (presynaptic membrane) comes in
contact with the membrane of the cell that is receiving the information (postsynaptic
membrane) there is a slight gap known as the synaptic cleft.
● Neurotransmitters are released by the vesicles in the terminal button of the presynaptic
neuron and they go into the cleft.There they reach receptors that are located on the
membrane of the postsynaptic neuron. This is a chemical synapse that is more commonly
occurring.
Structure of a Synapse

● The synapse is made of three structures that we need to understand.These are,the

synaptic knob, the synaptic cleft and the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic
neuron.
● The synaptic knob is a tiny bulge that is there when the terminal buttons end. There
are number of vesicles or sacs in the bulge which contain numerous neurotransmitters
● The synaptic cleft is the space between neurons (between the axon terminal of the
pre-synaptic neuron and the dendrite of the post-synaptic neuron).
● Information cannot pass directly from one neuron to the other. The information is
transmitted by converting the electrical signal of the first neuron to a chemical signal
that passes across the gap before it is converted back into an electrical signal in the
second neuron.
● Presynaptic terminals consist of synaptic vesicles ("fluid-filled sac").
● The chemical molecules, known as neurotransmitters, are released from the synaptic
vesicles into the cleft and move about with the help of the extracellular fluid that is
present in the cleft.
● The plasma membrane of the postsynaptic neuron is the membrane of the neuron
where the information is going. Certain receptors are present on this membrane
where the neurotransmitter molecules come and attach themselves.
Steps of Synaptic Transmission

● When the nerve impulse (Action Potential) reaches the terminal buttons of the presynaptic
neuron,the calcium ions move inside the membrane very rapidly.This causes the vesicles to move
about in the synaptic knob and merge with the walls of the presynaptic neuron membrane.When
this happens, then the neurotransmitters are released from the vesicles.
● The neurotransmitters move across the synaptic cleft and try to reach the plasma membrane of
the postsynaptic neuron.There they bind with the receptors placed on the membrane of the
postsynaptic neuron.This causes a local postsynaptic potential.
● The excitatory neurotransmitters cause the sodium ions to come inside the membrane much
faster than the potassium ions moving out from the membrane.This state is known as excitatory
postsynaptic potential (EPSP).
● Once, the threshold point of EPSP is reached, the action potential is initiated in the postsynaptic
membrane.
● The inhibitory neurotransmitters open the potassium channels causing the potassium
ions to move inside.This makes the membrane much more negative than at resting
position.This temporary state of hyper-polarization is known as inhibitory
postsynaptic potential (IPSP).
● Neurotransmitters that do not bind to the receptors are then sent back to the synaptic
knob
● There they are either taken back into the synaptic vesicles to be used again in a
process known as reuptake or are degraded using the synaptic enzymes.
● In this way, the synapse is cleared for the next release of neurotransmitters. (For
instance, highly addictive stimulant drug like cocaine, when consumed affects the
nervous system thereby blocking the reuptake process).
Importance of Synapse

● It helps to connect the neurons together via synapses and hence send information that
mediates behavioral responses. If there is any dysfunction in the synaptic activity, then
it may lead to change in behavior and cause depression, schizophrenia etc.
● synapse makes sure that impulses traveling across neurons should follow one direction
only.
● Since, transmitters are present only in the pre-synaptic membrane and receptors
molecules can be found only on the postsynaptic membrane. Due to this, impulses
travel in one direction only.
● synapse help in integrating the impulses traveling down from different neurons. It helps
in filtering out unwanted and unnecessary stimuli.
● In order to cross a synaptic cleft, an impulse must reach an action potential of +40mV.
If an impulse is weak i.e., less than +40mV, then it will not be able to generate enough
neurotransmitters and thus no communication will occur between neurons.
● As a, our body will not react to such stimuli and thus help in filtering out unnecessary
stimuli.
Neurotransmitters

● Neurotransmitter is a chemical found in the synaptic vesicles and when released has an effect
on the next cell. As the name suggests, it is inside a neuron and they transmit a message.
● When neurons fire, neurotransmitters are released from their terminal buttons. More than 100
neurotransmitter substances have been identified.
● Neurotransmitters are classified in three classes of small-molecule neurotransmitters, the
amino acids, the monoamines, and acetylcholine.
● There is a fourth group in this category known as unconventional neurotransmitters. There is
one-group of large-molecule neurotransmitters, the neuropeptides.
● Most often, neurotransmitters produce either excitation or inhibition. But a few
neurotransmitters produce excitation under one situation and inhibition in the other situation.
● There are various kinds of neurotransmitters as excitatory neurotransmitters such as
acetylcholine (ACh), catecholamines, glutamate, histamine, serotonin and some
neuropeptides.
● ACh was the first neurotransmitter identified. ACh plays an important role in neuro-
muscular function, sleep regulation, learning and memory. It also stimulates the
skeletal muscles to contract but slows contraction in heart muscles.
● The inhibitory neurotransmitters include Gama-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA), glycine,
and some peptides.
● Amine neurotransmitters are responsible for emotions, control of motor actions etc.
● Monoamines are like dopamine, nor-epinephrine, epinephrine, melatonin and
serotonin. Epinephrine and nor-epinephrine are involved in motor functions.
● Dopamine (DA) is found in the brain. It helps to maintain body balance. When it is deficient,
then it leads to tremors and over stimulation of the muscles, responsible for Parkinsonism. If too
much DA is released, it may be a cause of Schizophrenia. Dopamine (DA) may have both
excitatory and inhibitory effect depending on the synapse being affected. It is involved in
regulating mood, emotions, sleep and appetite.
● Amino acids are the most common neurotransmitters that are involved in protein synthesis.
● Any imbalance in the presence of the neurotransmitter GABA, may also predispose conditions
for stroke when certain neurons are destroyed by glutamate.
● GABA is a major neurotransmitter with inhibitory effect. It helps in reducing anxiety.
● On the other hand, Glutamate is the major neurotransmitter with excitatory effect.
● An excess of glutamate may result in overactivation and neuronal damage. Neuropeptides have
pain reducing effects on the body, called endorphins.
Important neurotransmitters and their functions
● The preceding account of neurotransmitters reflects on how the chemical substance
may have an excitatory or inhibitory effect. This helps us to understand why certain
drugs are prescribed by physicians to treat a disorder or drugs that are dangerous and
should be avoided.
● Drugs may act as an agonist, that is, the chemical substance may imitate or increase
the effect of neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, thereby increasing
or decreasing the activity of the cell.
● For eg., anti-anxiety medication like Diazepam, is agonist for GABA.
● As you have learned that GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, the inhibitory
action is increased by the drug and the drug directly calms the specific brain areas that
play a role in controlling anxiety.
● Drugs may also act as antagonists, that is the chemical substances that block or
reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters.
● If the neurotransmitter that the antagonist affects is inhibitory, there will be an
actual increase in activity of the cell, that would otherwise, would have been
inhibited.
● There are some drugs that affect the reuptake or enzymatic degradation process.
● Drugs that are used to treat depression, like SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitor), block the reuptake of serotonin, leaving more serotonin in the synapse to
bind with the receptor sites, which over the period of time helps in improving the
mood of the person.
Thank You!