Mathematical Concepts For Computing

AQ010-3-1 (Version E)

LOGIC AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

 TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, You should be able to
• Determine truth values of a proposition.
• Understand logical and Boolean operators.
• Construct the truth table for logical expressions and Boolean functions.
• Translate the logical expressions into English sentences and vice versa.
• Construct logic circuits and determine the output of the logic circuits.
• Simplify the Boolean expressions using Boolean Identities.
• Represent the Boolean functions in sum of products and product of sums
expressions.
• Simplify Sum of products expression using K-Map.

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 Contents & Structure

Logic Algebra Boolean Algebra

• Proposition • Boolean Operators
• Logical operators • Boolean Identities
• Translating English sentences into • Boolean truth table construction
logical expressions and vice versa. • Representing Boolean Functions
• Precedence of Connectives • Karnaugh Maps
• Logic truth table construction
• Logical equivalence, Tautology,
Contradiction, Indeterminant
• Logic circuits

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 Introduction-Logic
• Logic is the basis of all mathematical reasoning, and of all automated reasoning.
• Automated reasoning is an area of computer science (involves knowledge
representation and reasoning)
• The rules of logic specify the precise meanings of mathematical statements. These
rules are used to distinguish between valid and invalid mathematical arguments.
Example:
“For every positive integer n, the sum of the positive integers not exceeding n is “

n(n  1)
2
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 Introduction-Logic
• To understand mathematics, we must understand what makes up a correct
mathematical argument, that is, a proof.
• Once we prove a mathematical statement is true, we call it a theorem.
• It is the basis of the correct mathematical arguments, that is, the proofs.
• Logic defines a formal language for representing knowledge and for making
logical inferences.
• It helps us to understand how to construct a valid argument.

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 Introduction-Logic
• Everyone knows that proofs are important throughout mathematics, but many
people find it surprising how important proofs are in computer science.
• In fact, proofs are used to verify that computer programs produce the correct output
for all possible input values,
 to show that algorithms always produce the correct result,
 to establish the security of a system, and
 to create artificial intelligence.
• Furthermore, automated reasoning systems have been created to allow computers to
construct their own proof.

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 Logic – Some applications

 to the design of computer circuits/ machines,

 to the specification of systems,
 to artificial intelligence,
 to computer programming,
 to programming languages,
 to verify that computer programs produce the correct output for all possible input
values,
 to show algorithms always produce the correct results,
 and to other areas of computer science, as well as to many other fields of study.

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 Propositional Logic
• A proposition(‫ )گزاره‬is a declarative(‫ )اعالم کننده‬sentence (that is , a sentence that
declares a fact) that is either true or false, but not both.
• Notation(‫)عالمت گذاری‬: Variables are used to represent propositions. The
conventional letters used for propositional variables are p, q, r, s,…..
• The truth value of a proposition is
 true, denoted by T if it is a true proposition and
 false, denoted by F, if it is a false proposition.
 Propositional Logic

Example 1:
a) “Listen!" is
b) "What time is it?" is
c) "x + 2 = 2 and x + y = z" is
d) Read this carefully
e) "x + 2 = x*2 when x = 2" is a
f) 2 is a prime number. is a
g) She is very talented.
h) How are you?

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 Propositional Logic

Example 1:
a) “Listen!" is not a proposition.
b) "What time is it?" is not a proposition.
c) "x + 2 = 2 and x + y = z" is not a proposition.
d) Read this carefully is not a proposition.
e) "x + 2 = x*2 when x = 2" is a proposition.
f) 2 is a prime number. is a proposition.
g) She is very talented. is not a proposition.
h) How are you? is not a proposition.

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 Quick Review Question 1
Which of these sentences are propositions? What are the truth values of those that
are propositions?
• Kuala Lumpur is the capital of Malaysia.
• 2+3=4
• Washington D.C. is the capital of the United States of America.
• Read this carefully.
• Cat is an insect.
• 2+3=5
• 5 + 7=10
• x + 2 = 11
• Answer this question.
• What time is it?

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 Composite/ Compound statements
• Many mathematical statements are constructed by combing one or more
propositions.
• New propositions, called compound propositions, are formed from existing
propositions using logical operators.
Example 2:
Proposition A: It rains outside
Proposition B: We will watch a movie
A new (combined) proposition: If it rains outside then we will watch a movie.

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 Logical Operation

• Logical operations include comparisons of two data.

• The result of the comparison will be either true or false.
• It can be represented using truth table (T or 1 represents true, and F or 0 represents
false).
• The number of rows to the table is determined by all the possible values taken by the
propositions involved in the statement.
• If a compound statement contains n proposition variables, there will need to be 2n
rows in the truth table.

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 Logical Connectives
• More complex propositional statements can be built from elementary statements
using logical connectives.
Logical connectives:
1. Negation
2. Conjunction
3. Disjunction
4. Exclusive or
5. Implication
6. Biconditional
• A truth table displays the relationships between the truth values of propositions.

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 Logical Connectives

Connectives Symbol Name

not ~ negation
and ⋀ conjunction
or ⋁ disjunction
exclusive or ⨁ exclusive disjunction(xor)

if…then…. → Implication/conditional

if and only if ↔ biconditional

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 Negation
• Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by (also denoted by ), is the
statement “ It is not the case that p.”
• The proposition is read “not p”. The truth value of the negation of p, is the
opposite of truth value of p.
Truth table

p ﹁ p
T F
F T

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 Example 3 : Negation
Find the negation of the following proposition and express in simple
English.
1. “Today is Friday.”
“Today is not Friday.“ or “It is not Friday today.”

2. "At least 10 inches of rain fell today in Miami.“

"Less than 10 inches of rain fell today in Miami.“

3. “2 is a prime number.”
“ 2 is not a prime number”.

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 Quick Review Question 2
What is the negation of each of these propositions?
• It is raining
• 1+1=2
• Lion cannot fly
• “Michael’s PC runs Linux”
• “Vandana’s smartphone has at least 32GB of memory”
• 1 + 2 = 3 or 2 + 1 = 3
• The product of two negative numbers is a positive number.
• I will study hard, or I will not pass this course
• “There is a pollution in Kuala Lumpur”.

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 Conjunction
• Let p and q be propositions. The proposition "p and q" denoted by p  q , is
true when both p and q are true and is false otherwise.
• The proposition p  q is called the conjunction of p and q. Note that in logic
the word "but" sometimes is used instead of "and" in a conjunction.
Truth table

p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

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 Example 4: Conjunction
Find the conjunction of these propositions p and q where
p is the proposition “Today is Friday” and
q is the proposition “ It is raining today.”
p  q: “Today is Friday and it is raining today.”
Some other examples:
1. It is raining today and 2 is a prime number.
2. 2 is a prime number and 5 + 2 ≠ 8.
3. 13 is a perfect square and 9 is a prime.

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 Disjunction

• Let p and q be propositions. The proposition "p or q" denoted by p  q , is false when
both p and q are false and is true otherwise. The proposition p  q is called the
disjunction of p and q.
Truth table

p q pq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

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 Example 5: Disjunction
Find the disjunction of these propositions p and q where
p is the proposition “Today is Friday” and
q is the proposition “ It is raining today.”
p  q: “Today is Friday or it is raining today.”

Some other Examples:

• It is raining today or 2 is a prime number.
• 2 is a prime number or 5 + 2 ≠ 8.
• 13 is a perfect square or 9 is a prime.

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 Exclusive or
Let p and q be propositions. The proposition "p exclusive or q" denoted by p ⊕ q , is
true when exactly one of p and q is true and it is false otherwise.
Truth table

p q p ⊕ q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

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 Example 6: Exclusive OR
p : "Today is Friday
q : " It’s raining today
p ⊕ q : "Either today is Friday or it’s raining today, but not both.“
Some other examples:
1. The room has two light switches controlling one light bulb. If both switches are
ON, the light is off. If one is ON, the light is on, if none is ON, the light is off.
2. Think of it like telling a child they can have candy, or ice cream. But they can't
have both!
3. A simple real life example is magnetic pole. Like poles repel while unlike
poles attract.

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 Implication
(Conditional Statement)
Let p and q be propositions. The proposition "p implies q" denoted by p → q is
called implication. It is false when p is true, and q is false and is true otherwise. In p
→ q , p is called the hypothesis and q is called the conclusion.
Truth table

Some of the more common ways

p q p→q
of expressing implication are :
T T T (1) if p, then q
T F F (2) p is sufficient for q
F T T (3) p implies q
F F T (4) q is necessary for p
(5) p only if q
(6) q whenever p
(7) q, if p
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 Example 7: Implication
Let p be the statement “Maria learns discrete mathematics” and q is the statement
“Maria will find a good job.”
Express the statement p → q as statement in English.
There are many ways to represent the conditional statements in English.
1. “If Maria learns discrete mathematics, then she will find a good job”.
2. “ Maria will find a good job when she learns discrete mathematics.”
3. “For Maria to get a good job, it is sufficient for her to learn discrete
mathematics.”

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 Example 8: Implication
“ If you get 100% in the final, then you will get an A.”
Explanation:
If you manage to get a 100% on the final, then you would expect to receive
an A. If you don’t get 100% you may or may not receive an A depending on
other factors. However, if you do get 100%, but the professor does not give
you an A, you feel cheated.
Some other examples:
1. “ If I am elected, then I will lower the taxes.”
2. “if it rains, then I take an umbrella.”
3. A: Crashed, B: Reboot C: : Script is working

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 Biconditional

Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional p ↔ q (read p if and only if q), is

true when p and q have the same truth values and is false otherwise.
Truth table
Some of the more common
p q p→q q→p p↔q ways of expressing
implication are :
T T T T T 1. “p if and only if q”
T F F T F 2. “p iff q ”
3. “If p then q , and
F T T F F
conversely.”
F F T T T 4. ”p is necessary and
sufficient for q”
Note: The truth values always agree.

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 Biconditional (Cont..)

• p only if q
(if ~q, then ~p which equivalent to if p then q)
• p is sufficient for q
(in order to get q, it is sufficient to get p) equivalent to
(to get q, (if) get p)
• q is necessary for p
(in order to get p, it is necessary to get q) equivalent to
(get p only if get q) (if not get q, then not get p)
• q whenever p
(whenever get p, get q) equivalent to (if get p then get q)

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 Example 9: Biconditional
The flight attendant says, “You can take the flight if and only if you buy a
ticket.”
• If you buy ticket (True), you can take the flight (True). The statement is
TRUE.
• If you do not buy ticket (False), you cannot take the flight (False). The
statement is TRUE.
• If you do not buy ticket (False) but you can take the flight (True), this
statement is FALSE.
• If you buy ticket (True) but cannot take flight (False), this statement is
FALSE.
Some other examples:
A student gets A in MCFC if and only if his weighted total marks is ≥ 80%.

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 Quick Review Question 3

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 System Specifications

• Translating sentences in natural language (such as English) into logical

expressions is an essential part of specifying both hardware and software
systems.
• System and software engineers take requirements in natural language and
produce precise and unambiguous specifications that can be used as the basis for
system development.

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 Translating English Sentences
into Logical Expression
Example 10 : How can the following English sentence be translated into a
logical expression ?
“You can access the Internet from campus only if you are a computer science
major or you are not a freshman. ”
Sol : p : “You can access the Internet from campus.”
q : “You are a computer science major.”
r : “You are a freshman.”

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 Translating English Sentences
into Logical Expression
Example 11 : You cannot ride the roller coaster if and only if you are under 4
feet tall and you are not older than 16 years old.
Sol : q : “ You can ride the roller coaster. “
r : “ You are under 4 feet tall. “
r
s : “ You are older than 16 years old. “

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 Translating logical formulas to English
sentences
Example 12:
p: Alice is smart.
q: Alice is honest
1. ¬p ∧ q: Alice is not smart but honest.
2. p ∨ (¬p ∧ q): Either Alice is smart, or she is not smart but honest.
3. p → ¬q: If Alice is smart, then she is not honest.

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 Quick Review Question 4

Express the specification “The automated reply cannot be sent when the file
system is full” using logical connectives.

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 Precedence of Operators

Example: ¬ p ∧ q means (¬ p) ∧ q
p ∧ q → r means (p ∧ q) → r

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 Logical Equivalence
• Two statements are logically equivalent provided that they have exactly the
same truth values in all possible cases.
• A statement is a tautology provided that its truth value in all possible cases is
true.
• A statement is a contradiction provided that its truth value in all possible cases
is false.
• A contingency/ indeterminant is a formula which has both some true and some
false values for every value of its propositional variables.

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 Proving Equivalence via Truth Tables

Example 13: Prove that pq ≡ ~(~p  ~q).

F T T T F
T T F F T
T F T F T
T F F F T

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 Quick Review Question 5
Construct a truth table for each of the following compound proposition and state
whether it is tautology, contradiction or contingency.
1. (A∨B)∧[(¬A)∧(¬B)]
2. [( A → B ) ∧ A] → B
3. (A ∨ B) ∧ (¬ A)

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 Boolean Algebra
• Computers represent information using bits.
• A bit is a symbol with two possible values, namely,0 (zero) and 1 (one). The
meaning of the word bit comes from binary digit, because zeros and ones are the
digits used in binary representations of numbers.
• The rules of logic are used to design circuits and form the basis for Boolean
algebra.
• Boolean algebra is a deductive mathematical system closed over the values zero
and one (false and true)
• A binary operator accepts a pair of Boolean inputs and produces a single Boolean
value.

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 Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra deals with
-set of 2 elements {0, 1}
-binary operators: OR ( /+), AND( /.)
-unary operator NOT { / ‘ }

Truth table:

OR
AND
p q  / + p q / .
0 0 0 NOT
0 0 0
0 1 1 p / ‘
0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1
 Boolean Algebra

Rules of precedence are:

1) Parentheses/ brackets,
2) complement(NOT),
3) product (AND),
4) sum(OR)

Example 14

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 Logic Gates
• Boolean algebra is used to model the circuitry of electronic devices. The basic
elements of circuits are called gates.
• Boolean functions or expressions are typically implemented through the use of a
collection of logic gates, which are the basic building blocks of logic circuits.
• In real world, logic gates are used in almost all the electronic devices such as
phones, computers, washing machines, lifts etc. Whenever a decision needs to be
taken based on some inputs, a logic gate can be designed and used.

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 NOT gate

The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version

of the input at its output. It is also known as an inverter. If the input
variable is A, the inverted output is known as NOT A. This is also shown
as A', or A with a bar over the top, as shown at the outputs.

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 AND gate
The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only
if all its inputs are high. A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e. A.B.
Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e. AB

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 OR gate

The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or
more of its inputs are high. A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.

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 NAND gate

This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT

gate. The outputs of all NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low.
The symbol is an AND gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle
represents inversion.

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 NOR gate

This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The
outputs of all NOR gates are low if any of the inputs are high. The symbol is an OR
gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.

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 XOR gate

The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either, but
not both, of its two inputs are high. An encircled plus sign ⊕ is used to show
the EOR operation.

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 Example 15

Draw a logic circuit for the following.

1. (A + B)C

2. A + BC + D’

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 Example 16
What is the final output of the given logical circuit?


AB  C D
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 Quick Review Question 6
What is the final output of the given logical circuit?

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 Boolean Identities

Identity Name
(x')' = x Involution Law
x + x' = 1 Complementarity Laws
x • x' = 0
x+x=x Idempotent Laws
x•x=x
x+0=x Identity Laws
x•1=x
x+1=1 Dominance Laws
x•0=0
x+y=y+x Commutative Laws
xy = yx

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 Boolean Identities
Identity Name
x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z Associative Laws
x(yz) = (xy)z
x + yz = (x + y)(x + z) Distributive Laws
x(y + z) = xy + xz
(xy)' = x' + y‘ De Morgans’ Laws
(x + y)' = x'y'
x + (xy) = x Absorption Laws
x(x + y) = x
x + x'y = x + y Redundancy Laws
x(x' + y) = xy
xy + x'z + yz = xy + x'z Consensus Laws
(x+y)(x'+z)(y+z) = (x+y)(x'+z)

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 Example 17
A + A · B = A (Absorption Theorem)
Proof Steps Justification
A+A·B
= A · 1 + A · B Identity law
= A · ( 1 + B) Distributive
= A · 1 Dominance
=A Identity law

• Our primary reason for doing proofs is to learn:

– Careful and efficient use of the identities and theorems of Boolean algebra, and
– How to choose the appropriate identity or theorem to apply to make forward progress

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 Example 18
AB + AC + BC = AB + AC (Consensus Laws)

Proof Steps Justification

= AB + AC + BC
= AB + AC + 1 · BC Identity element
= AB + AC + (A + A) · BC Complement
= AB + AC + ABC + ABC Distributive
= AB + ABC + AC + ACB Commutative
= AB · 1 + ABC + AC · 1 + ACB Identity element
= AB (1+C) + AC (1 + B) Distributive
= AB . 1 + AC . 1 Dominance
= AB + AC Identity element
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 Example 19

(A + B) (A + B’) (AC’)’
= (A + B) (A + B’) (A’ + C) Involution & DeMorgan’s Law

= (AA + AB’ + AB + B’B) (A’ + C) Distributive

= ((A + BB’) + A(B + B’)) (A’ + C) Commutative& Distributive

= ((A + 0) + A(1)) (A’ + C) Complementarity

= A (A’ + C) Idempotent

= AC Redundancy

Use DeMorgan's Theorem:

1. Interchange AND and OR operators
2. Complement each constant and literal

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 Quick Review Question 7
Simplify the following expression :
(a) F  C  BC
(b)
(c) F  ( A  C )( AD  AD)  AC  C

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 Representing Boolean Functions
• In the design of digital systems, there are some standards that are regularly applied
to combinational logic.
• This chapter outlines two standard representations of combinational logic: Sum-
of-Products and Product-of-Sums.
• Any Boolean expression may be expressed in terms of either minterms or
maxterms.
• A literal is a single variable within a term which may or may not be
complemented. For an expression with N variables, minterms and maxterms are
defined as follows
– A minterm is the product of N distinct literals where each literal occurs
exactly once. (SOP)
– A maxterm is the sum of N distinct literals where each literal occurs exactly
once. (POS)

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 Example 20
F(x, y, z) = xy’ + z is a Boolean function where xy’ + z is a Boolean expression.
The truth table for F(x, y, z) = xy’ + z is

x y z y’ xy’ xy’+z
0 0 0 1 0 0 The NOT operator
has highest priority,
0 0 1 1 0 1 followed by AND
0 1 0 0 0 0 and then OR.

0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 1
 Quick Review Question 8

Use a truth table to express the values of each of these Boolean function.

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 Sum-of-Products/minterm (SOP)
Example 21:
• Sum-of- Products/ minterm (SOP) canonical form:
Sum of products/ minterms of entries that evaluate to ‘1’
x y z F Minterm
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 xyz Focus on
0 1 0 0
the ‘1’
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
entries
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 xyz
1 1 1 1 xyz
xyz+xyz+xyz
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 Product-of-Sums/ Maxterm (POS)
Example 22:
Product-of-Sum/Maxterm (POS) canonical form:
Product of sum/ maxterms of entries that evaluate to ‘0’
x y z F Maxterm
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
Focus on
0 1 0 0 (x + y + z)
0 1 1 1
the ‘0’
1 0 0 0 (x + y + z) entries
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 (x + y + z)
1 1 1 1
(x+y+z) (x+y+z) (x+y+z)
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 Example 23

• There are four 1s in  There are four 0s in

A B C F

SOP POS
the output and the the output and the
0 0 0 0 corresponding corresponding
0 0 1 0 binary value are binary value are
011, 100, 110, and 000, 001, 010, and
0 1 0 0
111. 101.
0 1 1 1 011  A BC 000  A  B  C
100  AB C 001  A  B  C
1 0 0 1
110  ABC 010  A  B  C
1 0 1 0 101  A  B  C
111  ABC
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

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 Example 24
Find the sum of products expansion for the function
F(A, B, C) = (A + B)C’ by using truth table
A B C A+B C’ (A+B)C’’
Three 1s in the
1 1 1 1 0 0 output. (110, 100, and
1 1 0 1 1 1 010).
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 1 Five 0s in the
0 0 1 0 0 0 output (111, 101,
0 0 0 0 1 0 011, 001, and 000).

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Logic and Boolean Algebra SLIDE 67

 Karnaugh Map

• Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps) are a graphical method of visualizing the 0’s and 1’s of a
Boolean function.
• K-Maps are very useful for performing Boolean minimization – SOP expansions.
• Karnaugh maps can be easier to use than Boolean equation minimization once you
get used to it.
• 1 is placed in the square representing a minterm if the minterm is present in the
expansion.
• The goal is to identify the largest blocks of 1s in the map and to cover all the 1s
using the fewest blocks needed, using the largest blocks first.
• Must group 1s in either 1, 2, 4, 8, or 16 and must be adjacent.

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Logic and Boolean Algebra SLIDE 68

 Karnaugh Map
• A K-map has a square for each ‘1’ or ‘0’ of a Boolean function.
 Two variable K-map has 22 =4 squares
 Three variable K-map has 23 = 8 squares
 Four variable K-map has 24 = 16 squares
• Will work on 2 and 3variable K-Maps in this class.
2 variable 3 variable 4 variable

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Logic and Boolean Algebra SLIDE 69

 Plotting Functions on K-Maps

 Two-variable map
Ex: A’B’ + A’B + AB
 Plotting Functions on K-Maps

 Two-variable map
Ex: A’B’ + A’B + AB

A A’

B 1 1

0 1
B’
 Plotting Functions on K-Maps
On a two-variable map, look
for a pair of 1's that are
either in the same row or
• Two-variable map column. If we find such a
pair, we record the common
Ex: A’B’ + A’B + AB variable.

A A’

B 1 1

0 1
B’

= B + A’
 Rule: 1

• A group of four will have one common variable. A pair must have two
common variables.
• In the examples below, the common variable for the left map is C’ and the
common variable for the right group is B.

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Logic and Boolean Algebra SLIDE 73

 Rule: 2

• In the examples below, the left pair has the common variables BC, while the right pair has
the common variables AB’.
• A solo / single 1 must have all 3 variables.

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Logic and Boolean Algebra SLIDE 74

 Rule: 3
• The map "wraps around" from the left edge to the right
• The common variables for the pair on the left are B’C’, while the group of four
on the right has the common variable B’.

Rules in detail http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Projects/Labview/minimisation/karrules.html

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Logic and Boolean Algebra SLIDE 75

Plotting Functions on K-Maps

• Three-variable map
Ex: X’Y’Z’ + X’YZ + XYZ’ + XY’Z + XYZ + X’YZ’

XY XY’ X’Y’ X’Y

Z
Z’
Plotting Functions on K-Maps

• Three-variable map
Ex: X’Y’Z’ + X’YZ + XYZ’ + XY’Z + XYZ + X’YZ’

XY XY’ X’Y’ X’Y

Z 1 1 1

Z’ 1 1 1
Plotting Functions on K-Maps

• Three-variable map
Ex: X’Y’Z’ + X’YZ + XYZ’ + XY’Z + XYZ + X’YZ’

XY XY’ X’Y’ X’Y

Z 1 1 1

Z’ 1 1 1

= Y + XZ + X’Z’
 Summary / Recap of Main Points

Logic Algebra Boolean Algebra

• Proposition • Boolean Operators
• Logical operators • Boolean Identities
• Translating English sentences into • Boolean truth table construction
logical expressions and vice versa. • Representing Boolean Functions
• Precedence of Connectives • Karnaugh Maps
• Logic truth table construction
• Logical equivalence, Tautology,
Contradiction, Indeterminant
• Logic circuits

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Logic and Boolean Algebra SLIDE 79