What do you feel when

you share or give

something to others?
 Is it possible to
live without giving
or sharing? Why?
Chemical bonding: Holding
particles together
CHEMICAL BONDS
• Atoms or ions combine to form molecule or
compounds. The forces of attraction that hold
these particles together are called chemical
bonds.
• The bonding process involves either sharing or
transferring valence electrons between atoms.
• Why do atoms or ions bond?
Atoms or ions tend to gain or lose their outer
electrons to achieve a noble gas electron
configuration; that is, having eight electrons in the
outermost shells. The completion of this “octet”
of valence electrons during compound formation
is called the octet rule. Octa- is a Greek prefix
meaning “eight”. Thus, the octet rule is also
referred to the rule of eight.
 Parts of the Periodic Table
Atomic Number 1

Symbol

Element Name
H
HYDROGEN
Atomic Mass 1.008
Electron configuration
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
S–2

P–6

D – 10

F – 14
Examples:
1. Magnesium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

2. Boron 1s2 2s2 2p1

3. Lithium 1s2 2s1

4. Nitrogen 1s2 2s2 2p3

5. Neon 1s2 2s2 2p6

Seatwork:
1. Oxygen 1s2 2s2 2p4
2. Sulfur 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
 The
Lewis dot symbol
Group
Period
1

7
Valence electrons
are the electrons in
the outermost shell
of an atom.
• Valence electrons are the ones involved in
bonding. Thus, atoms may be represented with
only their valence electrons shown. This
representation is called Lewis Dot Symbol.
• It consists of the chemical symbol for an
element surrounded by dots, with each dot
corresponds to a valence electron in an atom.
Determine the number of Valence
electrons.
1. Sodium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

2. Boron 1s2 2s2 2p1

3. Lithium 1s2 2s1

4. Nitrogen 1s2 2s2 2p3

5. Neon 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

Seatwork: Write the EC and Lewis
Dot Symbol
1. Oxygen 1s2 2s2 2p4

2. Sulfur 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

3. Aluminum 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

4. Carbon 1s2 2s2 2p2

5. Sodium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Ionic bond
• An ionic bond is formed when the valence
electrons of an atom are transferred to another
atom.
• This happens when a metal and a nonmetal
combine to form a compound.
• The metallic atom transfer the necessary
number of valence electrons to the nonmetallic
atom in order to satisfy the octet rule.
• The metal loses electrons, becoming a
positive (+) ion called a cation.
• The nonmetal accepts the electrons,
becoming a negative (-) ion called an
anion.
• The cation combines with the anion to form
an ionic bond.
Example:
Na and Cl
Sodium Chloride
NaCl
Example:
Al and N
Aluminum Nitride
AlN
Example:
Mg and F
Magnesium Fluoride
MgF2
Example:
B and Br
Boron Bromide
BBr3
Using the Lewis Dot Structure show the bond
between the following elements.

1. K and Br Potassium Bromide

(KBr)

2. Ca and F Calcium Fluoride

(CaF2)

3. Al and Cl Aluminum Chloride

(AlCl3)
Seatwork:

1. K and Br Potassium Bromide

(KBr)

2. Ca and F Calcium Fluoride

(CaF2)

3. Al and Cl Aluminum Chloride

(AlCl3)
Electron configuration and
periodic table
•Through the acid of the periodic table,
an element’s electron configuration can
be determined. Conversely, when one
knows the element’s electron
configuration, one can locate its
position in the period table.
• Elements belonging to the same group have a similar last sublevel
configuration (LSC). Thus, the periodic table can be divided into
four regions or blocks as follows:
1. The s-block consists of group 1A and group 2A. The LSCs of
these two groups are ns1 and ns2 respectively.
2. The p-block includes group 3A, 4A, 5A, 6A, 7A, and 8A. The
LSCs of these groups are characterized by the stepwise addition of
electrons in the p-orbital. Thus, the last sublevel configuration of the
groups belonging to this block are np1 np2 np3 np4 np5 and np6
respectively.
 3. The d-block includes the transition elements, arranged
in the periodic table as groups 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 7B, 8B, 1B, and
2B. The LSCs of the elements in these groups involve the
stepwise addition of electrons to the d-orbital the LCs
following: (n-1)d1
(n-1)d2(n-1)d3(n-1)d4(n-1)d5 … (n-1)d10
4. The f-block consists of the lanthanides and the
actinides. The LSCs of the elements in this block theoretically
involve the stepwise addition of electrons in the f-orbital. Thus,
the LSCs of the elements here ranges from (n-2)f1(n-2)f2(n-2)f3
(n-2)f4(n-2)f5 … (n-2)f10
7p
 Quick Quiz 1
1. Give the last sublevel configuration (LSC) and the total valence electrons in the
atoms of the following elements:
a. potassium d. bromine
b. aluminum e. vanadium
c. sulfur
2. Specify the period and group number in the periodic table of each of the
following elements and identify the elements:
a. element A: 1s2 2s2 2p2
b. element B: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
c. element C: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
d. element D: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5
e. element E: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
COVALENT BOND
• During the formation of a compound, atoms
can also share electrons, thus resulting in a
covalent bond.
• This bond usually occurs between nonmetallic
atoms. Unlike ionic compounds, which consist
of charge ions, covalent compounds consist of
neutral or uncharged molecules.
NONPOLAR MOLECULES
• A covalent bond formed by two identical nonmetallic
atoms results in a nonpolar molecule. In this case,
the electrons are equally shared by the nuclei of the
two atoms.
• This results in a balanced electron density around
them. Electron density is the probable volume of
space occupied by electrons.
 POLAR MOLECULES
• When two different kinds of nonmetallic atoms are covalently
bonded, the shared electrons are pulled toward to more
electronegative atom. This creates an unbalanced electron
density.
• The bond’s end with greater electron density becomes partially
negative, while the other end with a lower electron density
becomes partially positive. The presence of (-) and (+) poles
characterizes a polar bond.
 Seatwork
Draw the Lewis Dot Structure of each of the following molecules,
Identify the number of bonds and Determine the given if it is Non
Polar or Polar Molecule.

1. Iodine (I2)
2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
3. Hydrogen bromide (HBr)
4. Phosphorus trifluoride (PF3)
5. Acetylene (C2H2)
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
• The relative ability of an atom in a molecule to
attract shared electrons to itself
• Determined when an atom is already bonded to
another atom in a molecule

• In the periodic table:

• It generally increase from left to right
across a period
and decrease from top to bottom down a
group.
Electronegativity of the Elements
Polar covalent bond
• How to determine if its polar covalent bond?

Find the difference between the electronegativity

of the atoms and if the result is between 0.4 and 1.8
then generally the bond is polar covalent.

0.4 < ΔEN < 1.8

Example 1

2.8 – 2.0 = 0.8

0.8 is greater than 0.4 but less
than 1.8

( 0.4 < 0.8 < 1.8 )

Example 2

3.5 – 2.5 = 1.0

1.0 is greater than 0.4 but less
than 1.8

( 0.4 < 1.0 < 1.8 )

Nonpolar covalent bond
How to determine if its non polar covalent
bond?

Find the difference between the electronegativity

of the atoms and if the result is less than 0.4 then the
bond is considered as non polar covalent bond.

ΔEN < 0.4

Example

2.5 – 2.5 = 0
0 is less than 0.4

(ΔEN < 0.4)

Ionic bond
Here in IONIC BOND, the
electrons are not shared/
now transferred compared
to nonpolar and polar
bonds.
 Why does the electrons
are transferred in Ionic
K F Bonding?

Let’s have Potassium and

Fluorine as an example.

electropositi electronegati
ve ve
Once we solved
for their
electronegativity Greater than
difference, it 1.8
must be….
(EN > 1.8)
Example 1

-> 3.0 – 0.9 = 2.1

2.1 is greater than 1.8

(2.1 > 1.8)

Therefore, this pair of atoms are

an IONIC type of bonding.
Example 2

-> 4.0 – 1.0 = 3

3 is greater than 1.8
(3 > 1.8)

Therefore, this pair of atoms are

an IONIC type of bonding.
Example 3

-> 3.5 – 1.5 = 2

2 is greater than 1.8
(2 > 1.8)

Therefore, this pair of atoms are

an IONIC type of bonding.
To summarize:

Type of Bond Electronegativity Difference

NONPOLAR EN < 0.4

POLAR 0.4 < EN < 1.8

IONIC EN > 1.8

INTERMOLECULAR
FORCES
• Although molecules of covalent compounds are
uncharged, there are attractive forces existing
between them.
• These forces are referred to as intermolecular
forces of attraction, which can be classified as
dipole-dipole, London dispersion forces, and
hydrogen bonding.
 Dipole-Dipole
• Dipole-Dipole interactions exist between polar
covalent molecules. These are caused by the
attraction between (+) poles and (-) poles of
different molecules.
• For a solid consisting of polar molecules, dipole-
dipole interactions can cause the regular
arrangement of molecules.
London Dispersion Forces
• London dispersion forces exist as a result of the
atom movement of electrons in an atom or
molecule.
• The side with the greater electron density
temporarily becomes a positive pole (+), while the
other end temporarily becomes a negative pole (-)
• Since all molecules contain electrons, London
forces exist both among polar and nonpolar
molecules. However, in nonpolar molecules,
London forces are the only intermolecular forces
present.
• For large and complex nonpolar molecules, the
formation of instantaneous dipoles is more
frequent, resulting in even stronger London forces.
• London dispersion forces and dipole-dipole
interactions are collectively called van der Waals
forces.
 Hydrogen Bonding
• Hydrogen bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole
interaction. In this type of intermolecular force, a
hydrogen atom, which is covalently bonded to F, O,
or N, is attracted to another molecule that contains a
highly electronegative atom like N, O, or F.
• The attraction here is stronger than the usual dipole-
dipole attraction in other non- hydrogen compounds.
THE NATURE OF BONDS IN
SOLIDS
•Some solids have a crystalline
structure characterized by a
very orderly and regularly
repeated arrangement of their
particles
UNDERSTANDING CHEMICAL
SYMBOLS
NAMING OF ELEMENTS
• How are the names of chemical elements derived?
How are these names represented?
- At present, there are 118 known chemical
elements. Of these elements, 90 occur naturally on
Earth, while the rest are synthetically prepared and
developed in laboratories.
• Each element has its own unique chemical name
and chemical symbol. Their names and symbol are
universally accepted to make the dissemination of
scientific information possible and convenient.
These names originated from several sources.
• Elements are named either after their colors,
people (usually their discovers), places, or
heavenly bodies.
• Other elements have names derived from
miscellaneous origins. The most recently
discovered elements have names that are officially
approved by the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).
 Some elements named after
their specific colors
Element Word Color
Cesium Latin word caesius Sky blue
Chlorine Greek word chloros Greenish yellow
Iodine Greek word iodes Violet
Rubidium Latin word rubiduis Deepest red
Zirconium Arabic zargun Gold
Most elements discovered in the early
1950s were named after people
Element People
Curium Pierre and Marie Curie
Fermium Enrico Fermi
Mendelevium Dmitry Mendeleev
Einsteinium Albert Einstein
Nobelium Alfred Nobel
Some elements named after places
Element Places
Americium America
Californium California
Germanium Germany
Polonium Poland
Francium France
Yttrium, Erbium, Terbium, and
Swedish town, Ytterby
Ytterbium
 Some elements named after
heavenly bodies
Element Word Meaning
Helium Greek word helios The sun
Mercury ----- Mercury
Neptunium ----- Neptune
Selenium Greek word selene Moon
Tellurium Latin word tellus Earth
Some elements named after their
properties and greek origins
Element Greek Word Meaning
Argon Argos Inactive
Arsenic Arsenikos Male
Astatine Astatos Unstable
Barium Barys Heavy
Dysprosium Dysprositos Hard to get
Some elements named after their
properties and latin origins
Element Latin Word Meaning
Aluminum Alumen Alum
Calcium Calx Lime
Gold Aurum Shining dawn
Carbon Carbo Coal
 Elements that are not related to their
English name.
• Gold ( Au) Aurum
• Silver (Ag) Argentum
• Iron (Fe) Ferrum
• Lead (Pd) Plumbum
Symbols and Formulas of
Elements
OXIDATION NUMBERS
• Oxidation number, also referred to as oxidation
state, is a set of small whole numbers useful in
writing formulas of compounds. It is directly
related to the ability of an element to combine with
another in forming a compound.
•Ionic compound - the oxidation
number of an ion is the same as its
charge.
•Covalent compound – the oxidation
number of an atom does not necessarily
correspond to the number of covalent
bonds joining the atoms in the
compound.
 OXIDATION
GROUP
NUMBER
1A 1+
2A 2+
3A 3+
2+
4A 4+
4- Nonmetals starting
5+
from Group 4a to
5A
3- Group 7a can have
6+ negative oxidation
6A
2- numbers equal to the
7A
7+ group number minus 8
1-
 Example:
Assign oxidation numbers to each component element in
the following:

1. Na
2. HCl
3. H2O
 Activity:
Give at least FIVE ELEMENTS in each of the following
classifications and briefly DESCRIBE THE MEANING OF
THE ELEMENTS’ NAMES. Refer to periodic table, science
books or handbooks, and related online researches.
1. Named after colors 4. named after heavenly bodies
2. Named after people 5. with names of Greek origin
3. Named after places 6. with names of Latin origin
FORMULA
WRITING
•The chemical formula of a compound
consists of the elements’ symbols,
with subscripts giving the number of
atoms of each component element.
•For ionic compound,
formula writing can be done
easily using The Crisscross
method.
•Example 1.
Write the formula of the compound
formed when aluminum ion (Al ) 3+

combines with oxygen ion (O )2-

Note that in an ionic compound, the positive ion is

written first and the negative ion last. This is the
convention for writing chemical formulas of ionic
compounds.
•Example 2.
a. combination of calcium ion
(Ca ) with oxygen ion (O )
2+ 2-

b. combination of tin(IV) ion (Sn )

4+

with oxygen ion (O )

2-

After crisscrossing, subscripts should be expressed in

their simplest possible whole-number ratio.
•Example 3.
a. combination of magnesium ion
(Mg ) with fluoride ion (F )
2+ -

A subscript of 1 is no longer written in the final

formula.
•Example 4.
a. combination of barium ion
(Ba ) with phosphate ion (PO4 )
2+ 3-

When the subscript of a polyatomic ion is greater than

1, its formula should enclosed in parenthesis “()”
•The formulas of ionic compounds
generally indicate the simplest possible
whole-number ratio. However, for
covalent compounds, their formulas
indicate the actual number of atoms that
combines to form a molecule.
Seatwork:
+ ion
- ion
Cl- S2- CO32- PO43-
Mg2+
Al3+
Ca2+
NH4+
Ba2+
Na+
Li+
Mn2+
Zn2+
Naming of Compounds
IONIC COMPOUNDS
Ionic Compound First Name Last Name Examples

Case 1
Consisting of a Sodium bromide
Group A metal or (NaBr)
transition metal stem of Calcium sulfide
with only one Name of metal nonmetal + -ide (CaS)
known oxidation Aluminum oxide
number, and a (Al2O3)
nonmetal
EXERCISE
•Zn3N2
•Li2O
•CaCl2
•AlF3
•KCl
EXERCISE
•Ca3P2
•AgI
•Li4C
•CaF2
•RbBr
IONIC COMPOUNDS
Ionic Compound First Name Last Name Examples

Stock System Iron (II) chloride (FeCl2)

Name of metal with Iron (III) chloride (FeCl3)
oxidation number in Copper (I) oxide (Cu2O)
parentheses Copper (II) oxide (CuO)
Case 2
Consisting of a transition Classical System
metal with only two Name of metallic ion stem of nonmetal + -ide
known oxidation number, (usually in Latin)
and a nonmetal Stem name of metal ferrous chloride (FeCl2)
with lower oxidation ferric chloride (FeCl3)
number + -ous cuprous oxide (Cu2O)
Stem name of metal cupric oxide (CuO)
with higher oxidation
number + -ic
EXERCISE
•PbO2
•Co2O3
•AuCl3
•V3P5
•TiCl​2
EXERCISE

• CrF2
• Co3N2
• Cu3As
• Hg2Cl2
•Fe2O3
IONIC COMPOUNDS
Ionic Compound First Name Last Name Examples

Sodium
Case 3 phosphate
Consisting of a Name of (Na3PO4)
metal and a Name of metal polyatomic ion Calcium
polyatomic ion hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2)
 EXERCISE

• Na2CO3
• NaOH
• Be2SO4
• Li3PO4
• Ga(NO2)3
 EXERCISE

• NaHCO3
• NaClO3
• Al(OH)3
• Be(NO3)2
• KMnO4
IONIC COMPOUNDS

Ionic Compound First Name Last Name Examples

Case 4
Consisting of a Iron (III) sulfate
transition metal Stock system or Name of or ferric sulfate
and a polyatomic classical system polyatomic ion (Fe2(SO4)3)
ion
 EXERCISE
•V3(PO4)5
•Cu2CO3
•Pb(NO2)4
•Fe3(PO4)2
•Co(ClO3)3
 EXERCISE
•Cu(NO2)2
•CuCrO4
•Fe(C2H3O2)3
•Mn(ClO2)7
•PbSO3
Molecular Compounds
• Naming binary covalent compounds is similar
to naming binary ionic compounds. However,
Greek prefixes are used to denote the number
of atoms present in a molecule of a compound.
Greek Prefixes Used for
Naming Molecular
Compounds

mono- 1 Examples:
di- 2

tri- 3

tetra- 4
CO - carbon monoxide
penta- 5 CO2 - carbon dioxide
hexa- 6

hepta- 7
NO2 - nitrogen dioxide
octa- 8 N2O4 - dinitrogen tetroxide
nona- 9

deca- 10
ACIDS
•Compounds which are
composed of hydrogen and
another nonmetal can be
named just like naming simple
ionic compounds.
•Hydrogen + stem of
nonmetal+ide
Examples:
Hydrogen bromide
HBr-
Hydrogen chloride
HCl-
Hydrogen fluoride
HF- Hydrogen sulfide
H2S-
• Hydro + stem of nonmetal + ic acid
Example:
HBr – Hydrobromic acid
HCl- Hydrochloric acid
Ternary Acids
Stem of polyatomic ion+ ous acid
(if the name of the polyatomic ion end
in ite)
 Stem of polyatomic ion+ ic acid
(if the name of the polyatomic ion end
in ate)
Examples:
HNO2- Nitrous acid
HNO3- Nitric acid
 The Mole: A Unit for Counting
the Particles of Matter
1. Shoes, gloves and earrings always come
in_________.
2. When you buy doughnuts, you usually ask for a
_______ of doughnuts. You know that one dozen of
any item is________.
3. Paper is packed in reams. A ream of paper
has______sheets.
 Mole (mol)
• The term mole was originally coined by the
German chemist, Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald
(1853-1932). It is from the Latin word for “ heap or
pile”.
• It is defines as the amount of substance that
contains as many elementary entities(atoms,
molecules, ions or other particles)
•There are 6.02X1023 particles in one
mole.
This known as Avogadro’s number.
ATOMIC MASS and MOLAR
MASS
•What is the difference between
atomic mass and molar mass?
• ATOMIC MASS – Is the mass of one atom of
an element and usually expressed in atomic
mass units (amu).
• MOLAR MASS – Is the mass of one mole of an
element or a compound, expressed in grams per
mole (g/mol). For an element, its molar mass is
numerically equal to its atomic mass.
Example:

• Mass of one Ag atom = 108 amu

• Mass of one mole of Ag = 108 g
• Molar mass of Ag = 108 g/mol
CALCULATE THE MOLAR MASS FOR EACH OF THE FOLLOWING

• CO2
• NH3
• CH₃COOH
• HCl
• H2SO4
• Na3PO4
•P F
CALCULATE THE MOLAR MASS FOR EACH OF THE FOLLOWING

PCl3 NBr3
Na2CO3 N2O5
Br2I4 BrCl3
NaCL H2 S
NO5 N2O
NH4NO3
MASS-TO- MOLE
CONVERSION
 PERCENTAGE
COMPOSITION OF A
COMPOUND
•HOW IS THE COMPOSITION OF
KNOWN COMPOUND EXPRESSED?
•Percentage , the mass
percentage of each
element in the
compound.
 In all chemical compounds, the law
of definite proportions is always
followed.
Empirical Formula and Molecular
Formula
How is the formula of
an unknown
compound
determined?
Example:
A compound is composed of 52.14% carbon,
13.13% hydrogen, and 34.73% oxygen by
mass. What is the empirical formula? If the
molar mass of the compound is 138.204g/mol,
what is the molecular formula?
Example:
Determine the empirical and molecular
formula for chrysotile asbestos. Chrysotile
has the following percent composition:
28.03% Mg, 21.60% Si, 1.16% H, and
49.21% O. The molar mass for chrysotile
is 520.8 g/mol.
Example:
What are the empirical formula of the
following:
1.) 88.8% copper and 11.2% oxygen
2.) 62.08% carbon, 10.34% hydrogen,
and 27.50% oxygen
Carbon: Its Nature and
Compounds
 What makes
the carbon
atom unique?
 What comes to
your mind when
you see or hear
What makes organic
compounds different
from inorganic
compounds?
Identify whether if it
is organic or
inorganic?
Water
Methane
Glucose
What makes the methane
and glucose organic?

Because they have….

CARBON
Water
Inorganic
H2O
Methane
Organic
CH4
Glucose
Organic
C6H12O6
 What properties
of carbon make it
a unique
 What is so
special about
carbon?
There are more compounds of
carbon than all the compounds of
all the other elements combined.
About 95 percent of known
compounds contain carbon.
Carbon atoms are unique
because of their ability to
bond with one another to
form molecules
 n-butane
(straight chain)
 isobutane
(branched chain)
 cyclobutane
(cyclic chain)
The Lewis structure for carbon
can be written as
From this structure, carbon can be
noted as

tetravalent
The bonding of carbon with other
carbon atoms may be in the
following:
Single Bond (CC)
Double Bond (CC)
Triple Bond (CC)
Carbon bonds mostly with
nonmetals such as H, O, N, Cl,
Br, I, F, P, and Si. It also bonds
with metallic elements such as in
the following compounds:
dimenthylmercury
Hg - Mercury
tetraethyllead
Pb - Lead
methyl magnesium bromide
Mg - Magnesium
Seatwork:
Enumerate the unique properties
of the carbon atom.
Hydrocarbons
Compounds containing only carbon
and hydrogen are called
hydrocarbons, the simplest of the
organic compounds. For
classification purposes, all other
organic compounds are considered as
derivatives of hydrocarbons.
Alkanes
Alkanes have the general formula
of CnH2n+2 (where n=1,2,3,…)
is the simplest member of the
alkane series.
The structural
formulas of the first
four alkanes are the
following:
Structural Isomers
-same molecular formula but
different structures
-As the number increases in organic
molecules, the number of structural
isomers for a given chemical
formula increases.
Seatwork:
Draw all the structural formula of
octane and nonane.
Cycloalkanes
Hydrocarbons with only single
bonds that form a cyclic
structure are called
cycloalkanes.
Cycloalkanes
Cycloalkanes have the general
formula of CnH2n (where
n=3, 4, 5,…)
Complete the table of
cycloalkanes.
No. Name Molecular Formula
6

10
Alkenes
Alkenes have the general
formula of CnH2n (where
n=2, 3, 4, 5,…)
Alkenes
They are unsaturated
hydrocarbons because they
contain at least one carbon –
carbon double bond.
Alkynes
Alkynes have the general
formula of CnH2n-2 (where
n=2, 3, 4, 5,…)
Alkynes
Like alkenes, they are
unsaturated hydrocarbons and
their molecules contain at least
one carbon – carbon triple
bond.
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
This class of compounds was
originally called aromatic,
because many of its members
have fragrant smells. The first to
be isolated compound of this
class is benzene (C6H6)
Many aromatic compounds,
although fragrant, should not
be inhaled because they are
toxic and carcinogenic.
Naphthalene (C10H8), a common
substance in mothballs, is an example of
an aromatic hydrocarbon with fused
rings (or rings with two shared atoms).
Compounds consisting of many fused
benzene rings are called polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons.
Petroleum
Petroleum is a complex mixture of
alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes, and
aromatic compounds. Before it is
refined, petroleum is in the form of a
viscous, dark brown liquid called
crude oil.
Major fractions
of petroleum:
Natural Gas
Carbon Content of Compounds : 1 – 4
Boiling Point Range () : -161 – 20
 Petroleum ether
Carbon Content of Compounds : 5 – 6
Boiling Point Range () : 30 – 60
 Ligroin
Carbon Content of Compounds : 7
Boiling Point Range () : 20 - 135
 Gasoline
Carbon Content of Compounds : 6 – 12
Boiling Point Range () : 30 – 180
 Kerosene
Carbon Content of Compounds : 11 – 16
Boiling Point Range () : 170 – 290
 Heating fuel oil
Carbon Content of Compounds : 14 – 18
Boiling Point Range () : 260 – 350
 Lubricating oil
Carbon Content of Compounds : 15 – 20
Boiling Point Range () : 300 – 350
 Paraffin wax
Carbon Content of Compounds : 20 – 30
Boiling Point Range () : 50 – 60 (melting point)
 Asphalt
Carbon Content of Compounds : >40
Boiling Point Range () : viscous liquid
 Residue
Carbon Content of Compounds : >40
Boiling Point Range () : solid
Hydrogen Derivatives
One or more atoms of a
hydrocarbon may be replaced by
another kind of atom or group of
atoms. The resulting compounds
are called hydrocarbon
derivatives.
The substituted atom
or group of atoms is
called a functional
group.
 The
Hydrocarbon
Derivatives:
Alcohols
The hydroxyl group (-OH) is the
functional group in alcohols.
Ethanol
Propanol
Ethers
Ethers are extremely flammable
and can form explosive peroxides
when left open in the air.
Aldehydes and Ketone

The functional group of

aldehydes and ketone is the
carbonyl group (C=O)
Carboxylic Acids

It contain the carboxylic group (-

COOH) is the functional group.
Esters

An esters is formed from the

reaction between a carboxylic
acid and an alcohol.
Esters have very pleasant odors.
They are present in natural
flavors and are used to make
artificial flavorings. The
characteristic odor and flavor of
many fruits are due to the
presence of esters.
Amines

Amines are organic bases. They

are alkyl derivatives and have
similar properties of ammonia.