GENDER AND

POLITICS
GE ELEC 7: GENDER AND SOCIETY
 Lesson 4.1
GENDER AND LEADERSHIP
A. LEADERSHIP

1. Leadership is an attempt at influencing the activities of followers

through the communication process and toward the attainment of some
goal or goals. Leadership is an influence process that enable
managers to get their people to do willingly what must be done, do well
what ought to be done. (Cribbin, J.J. 'Leadership: strategies for
organizational effectiveness')

2. Leadership is defined as the process of influencing the activities of

an organized group toward goal achievement. (Rauch & Behling.)

3. Leadership is interpersonal influence, exercised in a situation, and

communication process, toward the attainment of a specified goal or
goals. (Tannenbaum, Weschler & Massarik)
4. Leadership is the art of influencing others to their maximum performance
to accomplish any task, objective or project. (Cohen, W.A. 'The Art of a
Leader' Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall (1990, p. 9)

5. Leadership is the art of mobilizing others to want to struggle for

shared aspirations. (Kouzes, J.M. & Posner, B.Z. The Leadership
Challenge' San Francisco: JosseyBass) (1995, p.30)

6. Leadership is the capacity to translate vision into reality. Warren G.

Bennis Leadership is the incremental influence that a person has
beyond his or her formal authority. (Vecchio, 1988)

7. Leadership is the behavior of an individual when he is directing the

activities of a group toward a shared goal. (Hemphill)
B. THE MAKING OF A LEADER

The definition of leadership entails that "effective leadership

have shifted emphasis from "who" the leader is to "what" the leader

does. This simply shows that a leader's gender, as an important

aspect of his/her character, is an important aspect to the leadership

style and effectiveness of his/her leadership.

PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF FEMALE AND MALE LEADERS

According to the Role Congruity Theory, the

agentic qualities (qualities of males) necessary in the
leadership role are incompatible with the predominantly
communal qualities stereotypically associated with
women, resulting in a prejudicial evaluation of the
behavior of women leaders as less effective or
unfavorable than the equivalent behavior of men.
Certain Ways Of Distinguishing Leadership Styles
Between Men And Women

1. Task-oriented leadership style (agentic) is

defined as a concern with accomplishing
assigned tasks by organizing task-relevant
activities. Behaviors of the task-oriented style
include: encouraging followers to follow rules,
maintaining high standards for performance,
and making leader and follower roles explicit.
Traits associated with males.
2. Interpersonally-oriented leadership style
(communal style) is defined as a concern with
maintaining interpersonal relationships by tending to
others' morale and welfare. Behaviors of the
interpersonally-oriented style include: helping and
doing favors for subordinates, looking out for their
welfare, explaining procedures, and being friendly
and available. Traits associated with females.
Leadership styles identified by:
Lewin and Lippitt

3. Democratic (participative decision-making

4. Autocratic (directive)
5. Laissez-faire (little or no direction)
 Roles of Leaders
Anywhere else, leaders (male or female) are expected to be:

Negotiator Team builder Guide

Motivator Friend Mentor

Coach Advisor Facilitator

BEHAVIOR AND ATTITUDE OF TRUSTWORTHY LEADER

Reliability Cooperation Walking the talk

Readiness to
Collaboration Consistency accept
feedback

Truthfulness Communication Confidence

 PERSONAL TRAITS OF A LEADER
1. Assertiveness 6. Responsible 11. Forgiving

2. Warmth 7. Risk taking 12. Rational

3. High tolerance 8. Skill 13. Performance

for frustration development orientation
4. Charisma 9. Flexibility

5. Role model 10. Generous

behavior
 INTERPERSONAL SKILLS OF A LEADER
Empathy Concern for welfare of Non competitiveness
people with group members

Listening skills Emotional security Satisfaction in helping

others grow

High expectations for Interest in the Honesty and integrity

each group members development of group
of members

Diplomacy & tact Insight into people Interest in people’s

potential

Patience toward people Ability to give authentic

feedback
 Characteristics of Successful and
Effective Leadership
1. Personality traits of great leaders through time were:

a. Determination e. personal integrity

b. emotional stability f. Originality
c. Diplomacy g. creativity
d. self-confidence
2. Intellectual abilities of great leaders
through time included:

a.judgmental ability
b. Knowledge
c. verbal communication ability
3. physical traits of great leaders through time
cannot be ignored such as:

a. Age
b. Height
c. Weight
d. Physical attractiveness
Strong autocratic leaders set their goals without considering the
opinions of their followers, and then command their followers to execute
their assigned tasks without question.

Consultative leaders solicit the opinions and ideas of their followers in

the goal- setting process but ultimately determine important goals and
task assignments on their own.

Democratic or participative leaders participate equally in the process

with their followers and let the group make decisions. Extremely laid-back
leaders, so called laissez-faire leaders, let the group take whatever action
its members feel is necessary.
 C. WOMEN IN LEADERSHIP
Ways Women Lead Leadership
Certain qualities such as aggressiveness, assertiveness,
taking charge, and competitiveness are traditionally
associated with strong, masculine characters. Even
women executives tended to show these characteristics
in the traditional corporate world. In fact, many of these
women executives were promoted because they were
even more competitive and assertive than their male.
counterparts. These successful women executives often
sacrificed a family life, which their male counterparts did
not necessarily have to do.
 The world (business and politics) is changing,
such that today, much research has found that women
leaders are different from their male counterparts in
management style:
Women leaders tend to be more concerned with
consensus building, participation, and caring. They
often are more willing than men to share power and
information, to empower employees, and to be
concerned about the feelings of their subordinates.
Such an interactive and emotionally involved leadership
style is not necessarily negative in today’s business
environment.
 Research studies find the new style of women
leadership to be highly effective due to the following:

a. Internally, a culturally diverse work force demands

more interactive and collaborative coordination.
b. Externally, culturally diverse customers demand
more personable and caring attention.

A caring and flexible management style serves such

diverse employees and customers better than
traditional methods of management.
D. GENDER AND POLITICAL LEADERSHIP
According to Pew research
survey, findings showed that women
compared to their share of the
population, remain underrepresented
at virtually all levels of elected office.
But such is not due to a lack of
confidence on the part of the public
rather that a strong majority of
Americans(75%) say women and men
make equally good political leaders.
 Some 14% say men generally make
better political leaders than women, and 9%
say women make better leaders than men. In
the said research, women are more likely to
say women are better leaders and men do
likely say more that men are better leaders
than women. With that, it simply shows that
both men and women have certain
preference of their kind when it comes to
leadership.
 Lesson 4.2

WOMEN IN POLITICS
A. WOMEN IN THE POLITICAL ARENA: THE
WORLD SCENARIO

The global representation of women in high

government positions lags behind men despite
suffrage rights. While women participate in elections,
they hold few top positions and minority seats.
Research shows women in government lead to
beneficial policies, but limited success stories indicate
ongoing gender equality challenges. The multifaceted
struggle for equality in government persists with
continued disparity between males and females.
 In the article "Women in Politics in the Philippines"
by C. A. Aguilar, the author thoroughly examines women
prime ministers and presidents, comparing cases of women
executives from 1960 through 2002. The findings indicate
that there are few women in executive office, with varying
geographical representation. Women executives come from
diverse educational and political backgrounds. The
research also highlights gender differences in electoral
outcomes, showing that female quality candidates face
greater disadvantages compared to male candidates when
multiple quality candidates enter electoral races. The
gender quality of candidates has a differential impact on the
electoral fortunes of male and female candidates.
WOMEN IN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIATION LEADERSHIP
 B. WOMEN IN THE POLITICAL ARENA:
THE PHILIPPINE SCENARIO
In the local scene, the 2019 Philippine National and Local
Elections showed that 20.16% (8,782) of the candidates were female.
The status of women in the Philippine society especially in
the aspect of politics and the labor market is tough high compared to
the world index, still show that gender equality “divides and mirages”
in Philippine sexual politics.
Although Philippines had two female presidents, but women
still struggle to establish a strong presence in politics, which is
predominantly controlled by elite males.
The slow increase in women’s political representation is due
to entrenched patriarchal norms, values, and gender stereotypes in
Philippine society.
 There had been a gradual increase in
the number of Filipino women participating
in Philippine politics, both at the local and
national level. Female involvement in the
political environment of the country was
highlighted by the election of two women as
President of the Philippines, namely
Corazon Aquino and Gloria Macapagal-
Arroyo.
 Maria Corazon Cojuangco Maria Gloria Macaraeg
Aquino was a Filipino politician who Macapagal Arroyo is a Filipino
served as the 11th President of the academic and former politician who
Philippines, becoming the first woman served as the 14th president of the
to hold that office. Corazon Aquino
Philippines from 2001 until 2012.
was the most prominent figure of the
Before her accession to the
1986 People Power Revolution, which
presidency, she served as the 10th
ended the 20-year rule of President
Ferdinand Marcos dictatorship. vice president of the Philippines
from 1998 to 2001.
 In the 2015 Global Gender Gap report by the
World Economic Forum, the Philippines ranked 17th
globally and 3rd in Asia in terms of political
empowerment. Political empowerment measures the
gap between men and women at the highest level of
political decision-making. However, this measure
does not include data at the local level. Overall, the
Philippines ranked 7th in the Global Gender Gap
Index, which considers gender equality, political
empowerment, health and survival, economic
participation, and opportunity.
In the past six election years from 1998 Election Women Men
to 2013, there has consistently been a Year
higher participation and success rate of
men compared to women in Philippine
elections, as reported by COMELEC. In 1998 16.15% 83.85%
1998, out of 63,531 candidates running
for 17,512 government seats, only
14.3% were women. By 2013, the 2004 16.63% 83.85%
percentage of women candidates
increased to 17.82%, but still
significantly lower than men. Over
36,000 men contested for seats in 2013, 2010 18.56% 81.44%
while less than 8,000 women did.
Although there has been some
improvement in the representation of 2013 19.92% 79.75
women in politics, these statistics
highlight significant gender disparities in
governance in the Philippines.
 In Philippine politics, men still dominate as seen by
the limited representation of women in key positions. For
instance, in 2012, only two women were elected to the
Senate, increasing to four in 2013. In the House of
Representatives, there are 60 women compared to 174
men. Advocates question the focus of laws prioritized in
Congress under such circumstances. It is noteworthy that
there are men, like Edcel Lagman, who advocate for
women's rights such as reproductive health. Conversely,
there are women, like Senator Nancy Binay, who oppose
pro-women laws, including reproductive health and
divorce legislation.
 Over the last three decades, the women's
movement in the Philippines has shown both
progress and challenges. Positive developments
have been seen in areas such as political
participation and law reform, while issues persist in
economic empowerment and addressing sexual and
domestic violence. The gender divide remains a
significant challenge in Philippine society, affecting
institutions and traditions. To address these issues
effectively, it is crucial to expand national efforts to a
regional and international level.
 C. ISSUES OF WOMEN PARTICIPATION
IN PHILIPPINE POLITICS

Despite the efforts of gender

mainstreaming, legal frameworks, project
initiatives, and international instruments
promoting women's participation, women's role in
various fields in Philippine society remains
minimal. This is despite the country's reputation
for having a liberal and progressive constitution
that promotes gender equality.
 In Article II Section 14 of the 1987 constitution,
“the state recognizes the role of women in nation-
building and shall ensure the fundamental equality
before the law of women and men.
Specifically, Article 13 and 14 mentioned that
the “state shall protect working women by providing
safe and healthful working conditions, taking into
account their maternal functions, and such facilities
and opportunities that will enhance their welfare and
enable them to realize their full potential in the
service of the nation.”
 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF
PHILIPPINE POLITICS THAT MAY HAVE CAUSED
FEWER WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN POLITICS
1. Prevailing patriarchal Philippine leadership
where male strength prevail as the social
definitions of roles in society. Women are pictured
as supportive of the “leader husband” and whose
main tasks are to entertain constituents
(socialization and diplomacy) and provide charity
work (social welfare or even dole-outs).
 2. The gender stereotyping of
multiple/double burden challenge also
contributes to the “glass ceiling” in politics.
Wives are supposed to take care of the next
generations of the political family and bear
most of responsibility of performing domestic
duties while they engage in political, economic
and social activities discourages women
themselves from running for public office.
 3. The “old boys” nature of political relations
and transactions also put the role of women in the
margins. This reduces the access to resources and
decision-making thus diminishes their political
influence.
4. The existence of multiple political parties &
patronage of 3Gs (Gold, Guns, Goons)
5. Costly election where difficulty of women in
finding sufficient resources for costly electoral
campaigns tends to hinder them from running for
elective government positions.
 6. Disunity in the women party list that
failed to convince the general Filipino women
of their special interests in the electoral
arena.
7. Personality oriented party lists rather
that ideological or programmatic nature.
8.Women’s votes or participations are
more oriented towards personalities or
parties.
 While the country has made great strides in
promoting and increasing women’s political
participation, with two women having held the
highest position in government as President of the
Republic of the Philippines, the proportion of
women in politics or public office is still yet to
meet the 30% “critical mass,” which scholars
identify as the minimum percentage necessary for
a minority group to be able to influence decision
making.
D. LEGAL FRAMEWORKS INCREASE
PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN THE
PHILIPPINES POLITICS: LAWS
PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY IN
THE PHILIPPINES
1. The 1987 Constitution – upholds the fundamental equality before the law
of women and men recognizes the vital role of women in nation building. It
also guarantees citizens’ equal access to opportunities for public service.

2. The Magna Carta of Women – (MCW, Republic Act 9170) provides under
Section 11 the undertaking of “temporary special measures” to accelerate
the participation and equitable representation of women in all spheres of
society particularly in the decision making and policy-making processes in
government and private entities to fully realize their roles as agents and
beneficiaries of development.” It mandates the adoption of temporary
special measures for the incremental increase of women in third level
positions in the civil service until a 50/50 gender balance is achieved; sets
a 40% quota for women in local development councils and planning
bodies; and provides for the creation of an incentive system for
encouraging political parties to integrate women in their leadership
hierarchy and electoral nominating processes, among others.
3. Local Government Code of 1991 – provides for the
election of sectoral representation, including women, in local
legislative councils.

4. Party List Law – provides for the creation of women-

oriented or women-based parties to compete under the party-
list system. Women is one of the 9 sector identified in the law.

5. Labor Code (1989) – Covers issues such as night work

prohibition, specifies that employers must provide special
facilities for women, prohibition of discrimination against
women in respect to terms and condition of employment,
prohibition of discrimination by reason of marriage of a woman
worker.
6. Women in Nation Building Law Republic Act 7192 (1991) – is
an act promoting the integration of women as full and equal
partners of men in development and nation building. The law
provides that a substantial portion of government resources be
utilized to support programs and activities for women. The law also
encourages the full participation and involvement of women in the
development process and to remove gender bias in all government
regulations procedures.

7. The presentation of women in legislative bodies is provided

under Section 41(c) of the Local Government Code; as well as
under Republic Act 7941 or the “Party-List System Act,” which
includes women in the list of marginalized sectors that may form a
political party and vie for representation under the party-list system.
8. Party List System Act (RA 7941) - party politics based on
principles and programs. The proportional system of representation
under the Party-List System Act which encourages a type of party
politics that is not personality-based but rather one that is anchored
on principles or programs becomes an entry point of some women in
legislative bodies.

9. Section 9,Article X of the 1987 Constitution states that “legislative

bodies of local governments shall have sectoral representation as
may be prescribed by law. Section 41 (c) of the Local government
Code (Republic Act 7160) states that “ there shall be one sectoral
representative from the women, one from the workers, and one from
any of the following sectors: urban poor, indigenous cultural
communities, disabled persons, or any other sector as may be
determined by the Sanggunian concerned.”
THANK YOU!!!