CHAPTER 8

TOXICOLOGY
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TOXICOLOGY

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
Define toxicology and understand its history;
Present the role of toxicology in criminal investigation:
Enumerate the methods in collecting samples for toxicology examination;
Identify the commonly used types of poison and their
classifications; and
• Determine the methods of examining poisons.
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TOXICOLOGY

What Is Toxicology?
Toxicology refers to the science of detecting and identifying the presence of drugs and
poisons in tissues, organs, and body fluids. There is a specialized area of toxicology
called, toxicology, which deals specifically with animal, plant and microbial toxins;
however, this is considered a science in its own right. Toxins are natural substances
produced by living organisms, whereas toxic substances are synthetic substances from
chemicals, which are considered toxicants.
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TOXICOLOGY

History of Toxicology
The history of toxicology dates back to the 16 th century when Paracelsus stated that “all
substances are poison.” In 1786 Plenck stated that “poison must be identified in the body.” In
1821, Mathieu Orfila of France, first classified the poisons and in 1836, arsenic was first
extracted in a cadaver. By 1836, scientist James Marsh performed the first arsenic test, while
in 1842, the Reinsch test for arsenic and mercury was designed. In 1850, tests for metals were
conducted, and the Stratas-Otto, a method to extract alkaloid, was first introduced; this was
followed by alcohol testing by examining the reduction of chromic acid. Finally, in 1910, Dr.
Alexander Gettler, a chemistry professor, started the field of forensic toxicology in the US.
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TOXICOLOGY

Importance of Toxicology
Toxicology is used to verify if a case being examined is poison or if there is a foul play in
the crime scene, which may have causes the death of the victim. Toxicology is an important
tool in conduct criminal investigations that rely heavily on the analysis of toxins and toxic
subtances.
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TOXICOLOGY

Tolerance and Idiosyncrasy

Tolerance refers to the condition wherein a toxic substances does not affect the body the
way it used to be (e.g., in the case benzodiazepines, amphetamines, morphine, heroin, and
methadone. Meanwhile, Idiosyncrasy is the opposite of tolerance, that is, small amounts can
have fatal effects (e.g., in the case of aspirin, penicillin cocaine, etc.)
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TOXICOLOGY

Collection of Samples for Toxicology Examination

There are many sources of samples for a toxicology examination and these include the following:
• Lungs: aside from blood, lungs can also be checked for samples to determine solvent abuse
• Liver, kidney, brain, and fat: many drugs tend to concentrate on these areas
• Organs: these are sources for bodies that are already decomposed
• Hair and nail clippings: these are excellent sources of samples to determine heavy metal poisoning, such as arsenic, antimony, or thallium
• Kidneys: heavy metals often concentrate in the kidneys.
• Lungs: excellent sources of volatile compound samples
• Vitreous humor: can be a source of alcohol/drug samples .
• Brain: can be a source of samples of non-polar solvents, Freon, or chloroform
• Blood: storage of blood should be -20 °C, fluoride oxalate
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TOXICOLOGY

Intoxication via Alcohol

Source of alcohol include ethanol, which is produced by the enzymatic action of yeast on a
vegetable substrate containing sugars. Alcohol fermentation yields 12%-15% alcohol, while
distillation concentrates alcohol to 40%-60%. A breathalyzer is used to detect alcohol
intoxication, especially among drivers suspected to be under the influence of liquor.
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TOXICOLOGY

What Are Poisons?

A poison is a substance that, when introduced to the body, may cause changes that will result to injury and death.
Poison, especially an overdose of pills, is the second most popular form of suicide. With the right kind of poison, it
would be a relatively painless death. Poisoning is a very popular form of murder. Poison can be easily be slipped into
a victim’s food or drink and depending on the intended outcome, can either act slowly, over a long period of time, or
rapidly, within minutes or hours. Certain types of poisons can imitate diseases, causing the doctor to misdiagnose a
medical problem, or can cause a steady weakening of the body making it susceptible to other more serious diseases.
Criminal poisoning has received little attention due to its apparently rare occurrence. Although statistics indicate that
poisonings account for only 3% to 6% of homicides, many cases of criminal poisoning may go undetected resulting
from the difficulties associated with detecting this type of crime. This type of crime frequently becomes known only
after exhumation of the victim’s remains.
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TOXICOLOGY

Commonly Used Types of Poison

Arsenic
Historically, arsenic is à favorite killer poison. In the UK, arsenic is available to be purchased at a pharmacy to
facilitate rat and pest management. When used as a poison, arsenic symptoms include Vomiting, diarrhea with
blood, and severe stomach discomfort.

Cyanide
Cyanide kills by preventing red blood cells from absorbing sufficient amount of oxygen it needs. This resulted
in a process know as “internal shortness of breath”. During World War II, cyanide ca were allegedly used by
spies of World War II as an easy escape op e capsul to avoid persecution
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TOXICOLOGY

Types of Poisons
1. Corrosive poisons - they destroy tissues when they come in contact with the body
(e.g., hydrochloric acid or muriatic acid)

2. True poison – natural poisons, such as cyanide present in silver cleaners 3. Cumulative
poisons – poisons whose intensity lies on the gradual accumulation of the poison (e.g.,
arsenic).
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TOXICOLOGY

Types of Poisoning

There are two types of poisoning. One is acute poisoning, which refers to exposure to
poison and produces immediate or instant death The other one is chronic poisoning,
which refers to the gradu exposure to the poisons and does not immediately result to death
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TOXICOLOGY
Classifications of Poisons
Poisons can be classified based on several factors, as discussed below

1. Based on Origin
a. Vegetable-poisons that comes from plants(e.g., Poison Ivy)
b. Animal- poisons transferred through bites and stings of terrestrial or marine animals (e.g., snake bites, sting from Jellyfish and
bees)
c. Mineral- are strong acids and bases (e.g., HCL and NaOH)
d. Microbial are poisons produced by microscopic organism (e.g., bacteria in spoiled food and fungi found in expired bread)
e. Synthetic are poisons chemically produced in the laboratory that have useful importance to its purpose but become poisonous
when taken into the body (e.g., pesticides and overdose of drugs).
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TOXICOLOGY

2. Based on Chemical Properties

a. Metallic- are poisons that can be detected through isolation and extraction using solvent extraction and flame test
like test for arsenic exhibits blue color on flame test

b. Non-volatile Poisons – are poisons that can be analyzed through extraction using solvents and confirmatory test
with the use of Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectrophotometer (FT-IR)

c. Volatile Poisons are poisons that can be isolated through distillation; its distillate can be analyzed using GC-MS

d. Anions are poisons that can be detected through qualitative methods of examination for the presence of

anions (e.g., sulfates, sulphides, chlorine, and alkalis)

e. Miscellaneous – other poisons (e.g., pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers).
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3. Based on Physical Form

a. Solid form may result to an overdose of sleeping pills and ingestion of dangerous drugs

b. Liquid form are poisons introduced to the body (e.g., pesticides and cyanide present in
silver cleaning agents

c. Gas forms include ammonia and bromine

d. Vapor
e. Aerosols
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TOXICOLOGY

4. Based on Physiological Effects

a. Irritants- are poisons that result in nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea when they come in contact with the senses chlorine, bromine)
b. Corrosive- are strong acids and bases that can destroy the tissues that they come in contact to (e.g., HCL, NaOH)
c. Neurotics-poisons can be
• Spine neurotics like picarooning and cerebrospinal
• Cerebral neurotics like alcohol, opium, and tobacco
• Cerebrospinal Neurotics further classified as
- Deliriants such as cocaine
- Depressants such as barbiturates
d. Aesthetics/Exhaustives, such as aconite and KCN.
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TOXICLGY

5. Based on Effects on the body

a. Local destruction on the skin such as phenols and HCL

b. Blood Poisons such as HCN

c. Nervous poisons
d. Cardiac poisons
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TOXICOLOGY
Methods of Examining Poisons
1. Identification- this refers to screening and confirmatory tests that are used to
identify the presence of the poisons. Screening test methods are done qualitatively by
flame test, precipitation, as well as the identification of organic and inorganic cations
and anions, metals, carbonlys, alcohols and aromatic hydrocarbons. Confimatory test is
done with the aid of the machines in the laboratory like the GC-MS and Fourier
Transformed Infrared Spectrometer (FT-IR). 2. Isolation- this refers to the process of
reducing the desired substance in its pure form through distillation, solvent extraction, and
chromatography
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TOXICOLOGY

Entrance and Elimination of Poisons in the Body

Poisons can enter the body through the skin, mouth, nose, rectum, eyes and vagina either
hypodermically (inside the dermis, a layer in the skin) or intravenously (insertion of needles
thru the veins). Poisons can be eliminated in the body by means of emesis (i.e., removing
the poison from the body), respiration, feces, urine, milk, sweat, saliva and tears.
Meanwhile, antidotes are substances that neutralizes a poison.
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TOXICOLOGY
Kinds of Antidotes
1. Mechanical Antidote-removes the poisons inside the body without changing it. Examples
are stomach tubes and ligatures.
2. Chemical Antidote – makes the poison harmless.
3. Physiological Antidote- an agent that counter the reactions
made by the poisons.
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TOXICOLOGY
Summary
Toxicology is the science of detecting and identifying the presence of drugs and poisons in
body fluids, tissues, and organs. Toxicology is important to determine the cause of death in
an alleged poisoning case. Alcohol is one of the most common substances being detected
for drunk driving. Its history accounts to the discoveries made by Mathieu Orfila and James
Marsh as well as the initiatives of Dr. Alexander Gettler. Meanwhile, poisons are substances
that when introduced to the body, may cause changes that will result to injury and death.
Meanwhile, poisons may be classified based on Origin, Chemical Properties, Physical
Form, Physiological Effects, and Effects on the body.
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