Lecture 1: Introduction

Lecture : 03

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Recap
 What is an Operating System
 What Operating Systems Do
 Computer-System Organization
 Operating-System Structure
 Storage Structure
 Operating System Operations
 Operating System architecture

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 Objectives
 Distributed Systems
 Process Management
 Memory Management
 Storage Management

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 Distributed Systems
 A distributed system contains multiple nodes that are
physically separate but linked together using the network. All
the nodes in this system communicate with each other and
handle processes in tandem.
 Communication is via a network. These systems are termed
loosely-coupled or distributed systems. The processors vary
in size and function and are called nodes.

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 Distributed Systems (contd.)
Some advantages of Distributed Systems are as follows −
 All the nodes in the distributed system are connected
to each other. So nodes can easily share data with
other nodes.
 More nodes can easily be added to the distributed
system i.e. it can be scaled as required.
 Failure of one node does not lead to the failure of the
entire distributed system. Other nodes can still
communicate with each other.
 Resources like printers can be shared with multiple
nodes rather than being restricted to just one.

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 Pipeline Processing
 Pipelining is the process of accumulating instruction from
the processor through a pipeline. It allows storing and
executing instructions in an orderly process. It is also
known as pipeline processing.
 Pipelining is a technique where multiple instructions are
overlapped during execution. Pipeline is divided into stages
and these stages are connected with one another to form a
pipe like structure. Instructions enter from one end and exit
from another end.
 Pipelining increases the overall instruction throughput.
 In pipeline system, each segment consists of an input
register followed by a combinational circuit. The register is
used to hold data and combinational circuit performs
operations on it. The output of combinational circuit is
applied to the input register of the next segment.

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 Pipeline Processing
 An instruction in a process is divided into 5
subtasks likely,

 In the first subtask, the instruction is fetched.

 The fetched instruction is decoded in the second
stage.
 In the third stage, the operands of the instruction
are fetched.
 In the fourth, arithmetic and logical operation are
performed on the operands to execute the
instruction.
 In the fifth stage, the result is stored in memory.

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 Pipeline Processing
 Now, understanding the division of the instruction into subtasks. Let us
understand, how the n number of instructions in a process, are pipelined.
 Look at the figure below the 5 instructions are pipelined. The first instruction gets
completed in 5 clock cycle. After the completion of first instruction, in every new
clock cycle, a new instruction completes its execution.

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 Pipeline Processing

Pipeline system is like the modern day assembly line setup in

factories. For example in a car manufacturing industry, huge
assembly lines are setup and at each point, there are robotic
arms to perform a certain task, and then the car moves on
ahead to the next arm

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 Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of
work within the system. Program is a passive entity,
process is an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable
resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter
specifying location of next instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one
at a time, until completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per
thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user,
some operating system running concurrently on one
or more CPUs
 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the
processes / threads
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 Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following

activities in connection with process management:
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

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 Memory Management
 To execute a program, all (or part) of the instructions
must be in memory
 All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program
must be in memory.
 Memory management determines what is in memory and
when
 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to
users
 Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently
being used and by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data
to move into and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

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 Storage Management
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit -
file
 File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine who can
access what
 OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

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 Mass-Storage Management
 Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in
main memory or data that must be kept for a “long”
period of time
 Proper management is of central importance
 Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk
subsystem and its algorithms
 OS activities
 Free-space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling
 Some storage need not be fast
 Such storage includes optical storage, magnetic
tape
 Still must be managed – by OS or applications

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 Performance of Various Levels of Storage

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 Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register
 Multitasking environments must be careful to use most
recent value, no matter where it is stored in the storage
hierarchy

 Multiprocessor environment must provide cache

coherency in hardware such that all CPUs have the most
recent value in their cache
 Distributed environment situation even more complex
 Several copies of a datum can exist
 Various solutions covered in Chapter 17

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 I/O Subsystem
 One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware
devices from the user
 I/O subsystem responsible for
 Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing
data temporarily while it is being transferred), and
spooling (the overlapping of output of one job with input
of other jobs)
 General device-driver interface
 Drivers for specific hardware devices

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 Protection and Security
 Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of
processes or users to resources defined by the OS
 Security – defense of the system against internal and
external attacks
 Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms,
viruses, identity theft, theft of service
 The main difference between protection and security is
that the protection focuses on internal threats in
a computer system while security focuses on external
threats to a computer system.
 Systems generally first distinguish among users, to
determine who can do what
 User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name
and associated number, one per user
 User ID then associated with all files, processes of
that user to determine access control
 Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be
defined and controls managed, then also associated
with each process, file

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 Protection and Security

BASIC SECURITY PROTECTION

Basic Provides the Controls the
system access to access to the
the legitimate system
users only. resources.
Handles More complex Quite simple
concerns. queries.
Policy Describes which Specifies what
person is allowed files can be
to use the accessed by a
system. particular user.
Type of threat External Internal
involved

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Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Hardware Protection

 Dual-Mode operation
 I/O Protection
 Memory Protection
 CPU Protection

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 I/O Protection
 All I/O instructions are privileged instructions.
 A user process might disrupt normal operation of the
system by issuing the illegal I/O instructions, by accessing
memory locations and addresses within the operating
system itself, or by refusing to surrender CPU. We can use
of several mechanisms to ensure that such disruptions
should not take place in the system.
 To prevent the users from performing the illegal I/O, we
define all the I/O instructions to be as privileged
instructions. Therefore users cannot issue the I/O
instructions directly; they should do it by making use of the
operating system.
 For I/O protection and security to be complete, we should
be sure that the user program can never gain control of the
computer in the monitor mode. If it could, then the I/O
protection could be compromised.

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 Memory Protection
 Must provide memory protection at least for the interrupt
vector and the interrupt service routines.
 Memory protection is a way to control memory access rights
on a computer, and is a part of most modern operating
systems.
 The main purpose of memory protection is to prevent a
process from accessing memory that has not been allocated
to it. This prevents a bug within a process from affecting
other processes, or the operating system itself
 In order to have memory protection, add two registers that
determine the range of legal addresses a program may
access:
 base register – holds the smallest legal physical memory
address.
 Limit register – contains the size of the range
 Memory outside the defined range is protected.
 Base and limit registers are special hardware registers.
When a process is run, the base register is loaded with the
physical
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 A Base And A limit Register Define A Logical Address Space

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 Protection Hardware

 When executing in monitor mode, the operating

system has unrestricted access to both monitor
and user’s memory.
 The load instructions for the base and limit
registers are privileged instructions.

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 CPU Protection
 Timer – interrupts computer after specified period to ensure
operating system maintains control.
 Timer is decremented every clock tick.
When timer reaches the value 0, an interrupt occurs.

 CPU protection is needed to prevent a user program from
getting stuck in an infinite loop and never returning control
to the O/S.

 A timer is used to prevent this. The timer is set to interrupt,

say every N msecs. The O/S then switches the CPU to
another process in a multitasking O/S.

 Loading/setting a timer is a privileged instruction.

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 Operating System Structure
 Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU
always has one to execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to
another job

 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU

switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job
while it is running, creating interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory
process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU
scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in
and out to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not
completely
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 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

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 Computing Environments - Mobile
 Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc
 What is the functional difference between them and a
“traditional” laptop?
 A technology that is capable of providing an environment
which enables users to transmit data from one device to
other device without the use of any physical link/cables is
known as Mobile Computing.
 It means, data transmission is done wireless-ly with the
help of wireless devices such as mobiles, laptops etc.
 Whenever any device is connected to a network without
being connected physically over a link or cable, data
transmission such as messages, voice recording, videos etc.
can be done be done by using the concept of mobile
computing.
 Mobile Computing technology helps users to access and
transmit data from any remote locations without being
present there physically.
 Thus, having such a big coverage diameter, it is one of the
fastest and most reliable sectors
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 Computing Environments – Distributed
 Distributed computing
 Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems
networked together
 A distributed computing environment contains multiple nodes
that are physically separate but linked together using the
network. All the nodes in this system communicate with each
other and handle processes in cycle. Each of these nodes
contains a small part of the distributed operating system
software.
 Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most
common
– Local Area Network (LAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)
– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
– Personal Area Network (PAN)
 Network Operating System provides features between
systems across network
 Communication scheme allows systems to exchange
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 Computing Environments – Client-Server
 Client-Server Computing
 A Computer networking model where one or more powerful computers
(servers) provide the different computer network services and all other
user'of computer network (clients) access those services to perform
user's tasks is known as client/server computer networking model.
 In such networks, there exists a central controller called server. A
server is a specialized computer that controls the network resources
and provides services to other computers in the network.
 Many systems now servers, responding to requests
generated by clients
 Compute-server system provides an interface to
client to request services (i.e., database)
 File-server system provides interface for clients to
store and retrieve files

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 Computing Environments - Peer-to-Peer

 Another model of distributed

system
 P2P does not distinguish clients
and servers
 Instead all nodes are considered
peers
 May each act as client, server or
both
 Node must join P2P network
 Examples include Napster and
Gnutella, Voice over IP (VoIP)
such as Skype

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 Computing Environments - Virtualization

 Use cases involve laptops and desktops running multiple

OSes for exploration or compatibility
 Virtualization is the process of running a virtual instance
of a computer system in a layer abstracted from the
actual hardware. It refers to running multiple operating
systems on a computer system simultaneously. Apple
laptop running Mac OS X host, Windows as a guest
 Virtual Memory is a space where large programs can
store themselves in form of pages while their execution
and only the required pages or portions of processes are
loaded into the main memory. This technique is useful as
large virtual memory is provided for user programs when
a very small physical memory is there.
 Developing apps for multiple OSes without having
multiple systems
 QA testing applications without having multiple
systems
 Executing and managing compute environments
within
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 Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

 Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a

network
 Logical extension of virtualization because it uses virtualization as
the base for it functionality.
 Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of virtual
machines, petabytes of storage available across the Internet, pay
based on usage
 Many types
 Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay
 Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
 Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
 Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available
via the Internet (i.e., word processor), software that’s available
via a third-party over the internet.
 Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for
application use via the Internet (i.e., a database server),
hardware and software tools available over the internet.
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available
over Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use). cloud-based
services, pay-as-you-go for services such as storage, networking,
Operating Systemand virtualization.
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 Computing Environments – Real-Time Embedded Systems

 Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of

computers
 An Embedded System is more of an application oriented
system i.e. it is dedicated to perform a single task (or a
limited number of tasks, but all working for a single main
aim).
 Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose
OS, real-time OS
 A Real Time Embedded System is a type of computer
system with timing constraints i.e. a system which
responds to external events or input stimuli in a timely
fashion (within finite and specified time).
 Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints
 Processing must be done within constraint
 Correct operation only if constraints met

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 Open-Source Operating Systems

 Open Source operating systems are released under a

license where the copyright holder allows others to
study, change as well as distribute the software to
other people. This can be done for any reason.
 Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which
has “copyleft” GNU Public License (GPL)
 Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX
(including core of Mac OS X), and many more

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 Web-Based Computing

 Web has become ubiquitous

 PCs used to be more prevalent devices but now
mobile devices (e.g. smart phones and tablets) are
more prevalent modes of access
 Now load balancers are used to manage web traffic
among similar servers
 Use of operating systems like Windows 95, client-side,
have evolved into Linux and Windows XP, which can be
clients and servers

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 Web-Based Computing

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 Open-Source Operating Systems

 Operating systems made available in source-code

format rather than just binary closed-source
 Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights
Management (DRM) movement
 Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has
“copyleft” GNU Public License (GPL)
 Examples include GNU/Linux, BSD UNIX (including
core of Mac OS X), and Sun Solaris

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 End of Chapter 1

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne