INSTITUT D’ENSEIGNEMENT SUPÉRIEUR DE RUHENGERI

Data Communication and

Networks
Year II CS/Network
Engineering

By:
Dr. Theodore HABIMANA
Tel: +250788301057
 Content
1. Fundamental Concepts
• What is a Network? Networked Applications. Network
Standards. Quality of Service. Switched, Packet & Routed
Networks. LANs & WANs. Message Standards.

2. TCP/IP Internetworking
• Overview. IP Addresses. Router Operation. The Address
Resolution Protocol. The Internet Protocol. The
Transmission Control Protocol. The User Datagram
Protocol. Port Numbers and Sockets in TCP and UDP.
Dynamic Routing Protocols. The Internet Control Message
Protocol. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. Layer 3
 Content
3. Telecommunications & Wireless Networks

• The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). Circuits. Analog vs.

Digital Transmission. Cellular Telephony. Voice Over IP (VoIP).
Wireless Access Service. Telcommunications Market Situation.
Orientation, Base 802.11 WLAN Operation, Typical Access Point
Operation, Main 802.11 Standards, 802.11 Security, Network
Management, Other Local Wireless Technologies. Bluetooth. UWB.
RFID. GPS. Wireless Sensor Networks.

4. Network Security

• Overview. Basic Terminology. Attacks. Security Planning.

Authentication. Firewalls.
 Content
• 5. Network Management

• Introduction. Overview. Planning Technological Infrastructure.

Traffic Management. Network Simulation. IP Subnetting. Network
Address Translation. Multiprotocol Label Switching. Domain Name
System. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. Simple Network
Management Protocol

• (SNMP). Directory Servers. Network Management Utilities &

Router Configuration. Tools for Diagnosing PC Connections,
Transmission Analysis Tools, Network Mapping Tools, Router
Configuration for selected vendor. Network Administration.
Organizing the Network Management Function. Configuration
Management. Performance and Fault Management. End User
 Content
6. Networked Applications

• Application Architectures. Terminal-Host System. Client/Server Computing. E-

Mail, HTML and HTTP. E-Commerce. M-Commerce. L-Commerce. Web Services.
Peer-to-Peer Computing. Web Hosting. Web Server Management. Web Server
Infrastructure. Web Client. Web Application Server. Storage Area Networks
(SANs). Network Attached Storage (NAS). Storage Virtualization. Cloud
Computing. Software as a Service (SaaS). Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS).
Platform as a Service (PaaS). Data Grids. Smart Cities. Smart Ecosystems.
CleanTech Applications.

7. Network Planning & Design

• Traditional Network Design, “Building Block” Network Design, Designing for

Network Performance. Project Management for Networks. Telecommunications
Systems Analysis and Design methodology.
• Domain Name Space (DNS) - SMTP, FDP, HTTP, WWW - Security - Firewalls.
 Chap 0:
INTRODUCTION TO TELECOMMUNICATION
 Introduction-Definition
• Telecommunication is the exchange of information over
significant distances by electronic means. A complete,
single telecommunications circuit consists of two
stations, each equipped with a transmitter and a
receiver. The transmitter and receiver at any station
may be combined into a single device called a
transceiver. The medium of signal transmission can be
electrical wire or cable (also known as "copper"),
optical fiber or electromagnetic fields. The free-space
transmission and reception of data by means of
electromagnetic fields is called wireless.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM
• Input transducer: convert the output of a
source into an electrical
• signal that is suitable for transmission.
• Example: a microphone, a video camera etc.
• Transmitter: converts the electrical signal into a
form that is suitable for transmission through
the physical channel or transmission medium.
• In general, the transmitter performs the
matching of the message signal to the channel
• by a process called modulation, e.g AM, FM
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM
• Channel: physical medium used to send the signal
from the transmitter to the receiver.
• Example: fiber optic cable, Twisted pairs ect.
• Receiver : is a device that recovers the message signal
contained in the received signal if the message signal
is transmitted by carrier modulation, the receiver
performs carrier demodulation to extract the message
from the modulated signal.
• Output transducer: convert the electrical signals that
are received into a form that is suitable for the use.
• Examples: the speaker.
VOICE AND TELEPHONE NETWORK
• A telephone, or phone, is a telecommunications device that
permits two or more users to conduct a conversation when they
are not in the same vicinity of each other to be heard directly. A
telephone converts sound, typically and most efficiently the
human voice, into electronic signals suitable for transmission
via cables or other transmission media over long distances, and
replays such signals simultaneously in audible form to its user.
The word telephone has been adapted into the vocabulary of
many languages.
• Originally developed for conveying human speech information
(voice)
• Now extensively used to transport data using data modems
• PTN: - Public telephone network,
CHAPTER I: COMMUNICATION
OVER THE NETWORK
 What is a communication ?
• Communication in our daily lives takes many
forms and occurs in many environments.
• We have different expectations depending on
whether we are chatting via the Internet or
participating in a job interview.
• Each situation has its corresponding expected
behaviors and styles.
 Establishing Rules
• Before beginning to communicate with each other, we establish rules or
agreements to govern the conversation. These rules, or protocols, must
be followed in order for the message to be successfully delivered and
understood.
• Among the protocols that govern successful human communication are:
 An identified sender and receiver
 Agreed upon method of communicating (face-to-face, telephone,
letter, photograph)
 Common language and grammar
 Speed and timing of delivery
 Confirmation or acknowledgement requirements
• Communication rules may vary according to the context. If a message
conveys an important fact or concept, a confirmation that the message
has been received and understood is necessary. Less important
messages may not require an acknowledgement from the recipient.
 Computer Networks
• In the world of computers, networking is the
practice of linking two or more computing
devices together for the purpose of sharing
data.
• Networks are built with a mix of computer
hardware and computer software.
• A network is a set of interconnected systems
sharing resources and interacting using a
shared communication link.
 Network
• A group of computers that are connected to each other
through cables, telephone lines or satellite links.
• Networked computers can swap information and allow
their users to communicate with one another over the
network.
• A network consists of two or more computers that are
linked in order to share resources (such as printers and
CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow electronic
communications.
• The computers on a network may be linked through
cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or
infrared light beams.
 Multiple services-multiple networks
• Traditional telephone, radio, television, and
computer data networks each have their own
individual versions of the four basic network
elements.
• In the past, every one of these services required
a different technology to carry its particular
communication signal.
• Additionally, each service had its own set of
rules and standards to ensure successful
communication of its signal across a specific
 Converged networks
• Technology advances are enabling us to consolidate
these disparate networks onto one platform - a
platform defined as a converged network.
• The flow of voice, video, and data traveling over the
same network eliminates the need to create and
maintain separate networks.
• On a converged network there are still many points
of contact and many specialized devices - for
example, personal computers, phones, TVs,
personal assistants, and retail point-of-sale registers
- but only one common network infrastructure.
PLATFORM FOR COMMUNICATION
• Being able to reliably communicate to anyone,
anywhere, is becoming increasingly important
to our personal and business lives.
• In order to support the immediate delivery of
the millions of messages being exchanged
between people all over the world, we rely on
a web of interconnected networks.
• These data or information networks vary in
size and capabilities, but all networks have
five basic elements in common:
Components of communication
 Data flow
• Communication between two devices can be
 simplex,
 half-duplex, or
 full-duplex.
 Simplex mode
• In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as
on a one-way street.
• Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the
other can only receive
• Eg: Monitor, keyboard, ….
 Half-Duplex
• The half-duplex mode is used in cases where
there is no need for communication in both
directions at the same time; the entire capacity
of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
• Eg: Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios
 Full-Duplex
• In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can
transmit and receive simultaneously
• The full-duplex mode is like a two way street with traffic flowing
in both directions at the same time.
• Eg: Mobile cell phones
 NETWORKS
Components of Networks

• The path that a message takes from source to

destination can be as simple as a single cable
connecting one computer to another or as
complex as a network that literally spans the
globe.
• This network infrastructure is the platform that
supports our human network.
• It provides the stable and reliable channel over
 Devices and media
• Devices and media are the physical elements or
hardware of the network.
• Hardware is often the visible components of the
network platform such as a laptop, a PC, a
switch, or the cabling used to connect the
devices.
• Occasionally, some components may not be so
visible.
• In the case of wireless media, messages are
transmitted through the air using invisible radio
 Services and processes
• Services and processes are the communication
programs, called software, that run on the networked
devices.
• A network service provides information in response to
a request.
• Services include many of the common network
applications people use every day, like e-mail hosting
services and web hosting services.
• Processes provide the functionality that directs and
moves the messages through the network.
• Processes are less obvious to us but are critical to the
operation of networks.
 End devices and their roles
• The network devices that people are most familiar with are
called end devices. These devices form the interface between
the human network and the underlying communication
network. Some examples of end devices are:
 Computers (work stations, laptops, file servers, web servers)
 Network printers
 VoIP phones
 Security cameras
 Mobile handheld devices (such as wireless barcode
scanners, PDAs)
• In the context of a network, end devices are referred to as
hosts. A host device is either the source or destination of a
message transmitted over the network.
 End devices and their roles
• In order to distinguish one host from another, each host on
a network is identified by an address. When a host initiates
communication, it uses the address of the destination host
to specify where the message should be sent.
• In modern networks, a host can act as a client, a server, or
both. Software installed on the host determines which role
it plays on the network.
• Servers are hosts that have software installed that enables
them to provide information and services, like e-mail or
web pages, to other hosts on the network.
• Clients are hosts that have software installed that enables
them to request and display the information obtained from
the server.
End devices
 Intermediate devices and their roles
• Intermediate devices are:
 Network Access Devices (Hubs, switches, and
wireless access points)
 Internetworking Devices (routers)
 Communication Servers and Modems
 Security Devices (firewalls)
• The management of data as it flows through the
network is also a role of the intermediary devices.
These devices use the destination host address, in
conjunction with information about the network
interconnections, to determine the path that messages
 Intermediate devices and their roles
• Processes running on the intermediary network devices
perform these functions:
 Regenerate and retransmit data signals
 Maintain information about what pathways exist
through the network and internetwork
 Notify other devices of errors and communication
failures
 Direct data along alternate pathways when there is a
link failure
 Classify and direct messages according to QoS priorities
 Permit or deny the flow of data, based on security
settings
 Network Media
• Communication across a network is carried on a
medium. The medium provides the channel over
which the message travels from source to destination.
• Modern networks primarily use three types of media
to interconnect devices and to provide the pathway
over which data can be transmitted. These media are:
 Metallic wires within cables
 Glass or plastic fibers (fiber optic cable)
 Wireless transmission
• The signal encoding that must occur for the message
to be transmitted is different for each media type.
 Network Media
• On metallic wires, the data is encoded into electrical impulses that
match specific patterns.
• Fiber optic transmissions rely on pulses of light, within either
infrared or visible light ranges.
• In wireless transmission, patterns of electromagnetic waves depict
the various bit values.
• Different types of network media have different features and
benefits. Not all network media has the same characteristics and is
appropriate for the same purpose. Criteria for choosing a network
media are:
• The distance the media can successfully carry a signal.
• The environment in which the media is to be installed.
• The amount of data and the speed at which it must be transmitted.
• The cost of the media and installation.
 Network Media
• Communication across a network is carried on a
medium. The medium provides the channel over
which the message travels from source to destination.
• Modern networks primarily use three types of media
to interconnect devices and to provide the pathway
over which data can be transmitted. These media are:
• Metallic wires within cables
• Glass or plastic fibers (fiber optic cable)
• Wireless transmission
• The signal encoding that must occur for the message
to be transmitted is different for each media type.
 Network Media
• On metallic wires, the data is encoded into electrical impulses that
match specific patterns.
• Fiber optic transmissions rely on pulses of light, within either
infrared or visible light ranges.
• In wireless transmission, patterns of electromagnetic waves depict
the various bit values.
• Different types of network media have different features and
benefits. Not all network media has the same characteristics and is
appropriate for the same purpose. Criteria for choosing a network
media are:
• The distance the media can successfully carry a signal.
• The environment in which the media is to be installed.
• The amount of data and the speed at which it must be transmitted.
• The cost of the media and installation.
 Classification of networks
• There is no generally accepted taxonomy into which all
computer networks fit, but two dimensions stand out as
important: transmission technology and scale. There are
two types of transmission technology that are in
widespread use: broadcast links and point-to-point links.
• Point-to-point links connect individual pairs of machines.
• To go from the source to the destination on a network
made up of point-to-point links, short messages, called
packets in certain contexts, may have to first visit one or
more intermediate machines.
• Point-to-point transmission with exactly one sender and
exactly one receiver is sometimes called Unicasting.
 Classification of networks
• In contrast, on a broadcast network, the communication
channel is shared by all the machines on the network;
packets sent by any machine are received by all the
others.
• An alternative criterion for classifying networks is by
scale. Distance is important as a classification metric
because different technologies are used at different
scales.
• Networks infrastructures can vary greatly in terms of:
 The size of the area covered
 The number of users connected
 The number and types of services available
 Classification of networks
• At the top are the personal area networks(PAN),
networks that are meant for one person.
• Beyond these come longer-range networks.
• These can be divided into local, metropolitan, and
wide area networks (LAN,MAN and WAN), each
with increasing scale.
• Finally, the connection of two or more networks is
called an internetwork.
• The worldwide Internet is certainly the best-
known (but not the only) example of an
Classification of interconnected processors
by scale
 PANs (Personal Area Networks)
• IT let devices communicate over the range of a person.
• A common example is a wireless network that connects a
computer with its peripherals.
• Almost every computer has an attached monitor, keyboard,
mouse, and printer. Without using wireless, this connection
must be done with cables.
• To help these users, some companies got together to
design a short-range wireless network called Bluetooth to
connect these components without wires.
• The idea is that if your devices have Bluetooth, then you
need no cables. You just put them down, turn them on, and
they work together.
• For many people, this ease of operation is a big plus.
 LAN
• Local Area Network (LAN) is usually privately
owned and links the devices in a single office,
building, or campus.
• Depending on the needs of an organization and
the type of technology used, a LAN can be as
simple as two PCs and a printer in someone's
home office; or it can extend throughout a
company and include audio and video peripherals.
• Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
• When LANs are used by companies, they are
called enterprise networks.
 Wireless LAN and Wired with Switched
Ethernet
• Wireless LANs are very popular these days, especially in
homes, older office buildings, cafeterias, and other places
where it is too much trouble to install cables.
• In these systems, every computer has a radio modem and an
antenna that it uses to communicate with other computers
 LAN data transmissions
• LAN data transmissions fall into three
classifications: unicast, multicast, and broadcast.
• In each type of transmission, a single packet is sent
to one or more nodes.
• In a unicast transmission, a single packet is sent
from the source to a destination on a network.
• First, the source node addresses the packet by
using the address of the destination node.
• The package is then sent onto the network, and
finally, the network passes the packet to its
destination.
 LAN data transmissions
• A multicast transmission consists of a single data packet
that is copied and sent to a specific subsetof nodes on the
network. First, the source node addresses the packet by
using a multicast address.
• The packet is then sent into the network, which makes
copies of the packet and sends a copy to eachnode that is
part of the multicast address.
• A broadcast transmission consists of a single data packet
that is copied and sent to all nodes on thenetwork. In
these types of transmissions, the source node addresses
the packet by using the broadcastaddress.
• The packet is then sent into the network, which makes
copies of the packet and sends a copyto every node on the
 WAN
• A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance
transmission of data, image, audio, and video information
over large geographic areas that may comprise a country,
a continent, or even the whole world.
• connects computers that are physically far apart. “long-
haul network”.
– typically slower than a LAN.
– typically less reliable than a LAN.
– point-to-point
• Technologies:
– telephone lines
– Satellite communications
 Metropolitan Area Networks
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a
size between a LAN and a WAN.
• It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
• It is designed for customers who need a high-speed
connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have
endpoints spread over a city or part of city.
• A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone
company network that can provide a high-speed DSL
line to the customer.
• Another example is the cable TV network that originally
was designed for cable TV, but today can also be used
for high-speed data connection to the Internet.
Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork
• A global mesh of interconnected networks is called
internetworks.
• Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN, or a LAN in isolation;
they are connected to one another.
• When two or more networks are connected, they become an
internetwork, or internet.
• As an example, assume that an organization has two offices,
one on the east coast and the other on the west coast.
• The established office on the west coast has a bus topology
LAN; the newly opened office on the east coast has a star
topology LAN.
• The president of the company lives somewhere in the middle
and needs to have control over the company from her/his
 Intranet
• The term intranet is often used to refer to a private connection
of LANs and WANs that belongs to an organization, and is
designed to be accessible only by the organization's members,
employees, or others with authorization.
• Note: The following terms may be interchangeable:
internetwork, data network, and network.
• A connection of two or more data networks forms an
internetwork - a network of networks.
• It is also common to refer to an internetwork as a data network
- or simply as a network - when considering communications at
a high level.
• The usage of terms depends on the context at the time and
terms may often be interchanged
 Internet
• Although there are benefits to using a LAN or WAN,
most of us need to communicate with a resource
on another network, outside of our local
organization.
• Examples of this type of communication include:
 Sending an e-mail to a friend in another country
 Accessing news or products on a website
 Getting a file from a neighbor's computer
 Instant messaging with a relative in another city
 Following a favorite sporting team's performance
on a cell phone
 Network Topology
• A network topology defines the physical
connections of hosts in a computer network.
• There are several types of physical topologies,
including:
 Star,
 Mesh,
 Bus,
 Ring, and
 Tree.
 Star topology
• When a star topology is used, each computer
is individually wired to a central connecting
device with twisted-pair cabling.
• The central connecting device could be a hub,
a switch, or a SOHO router.
• This is the type of topology usually used when
implementing networks.
Star topology
 Advantages of Star Topology
1) As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better
performance, signals don’t necessarily get transmitted to
all the workstations. A sent signal reaches the intended
destination after passing through no more than 3-4 devices
and 2-3 links. Performance of the network is dependent on
the capacity of central hub.
2) Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology new
nodes can be added easily without affecting rest of the
network. Similarly components can also be removed easily.
3) Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
4) Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of
network. At the same time its easy to detect the failure and
troubleshoot it.
 Disadvantages of Star Topology
1) Too much dependency on central device has
its own drawbacks. If it fails whole network
goes down.
2) The use of hub, a router or a switch as central
device increases the overall cost of the
network.
3) Performance and as well number of nodes
which can be added in such topology is
depended on capacity of central device.
 Mesh topology
• In mesh topology every computer connects to every other
computer; no central connecting device is needed. Every
device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device.
• To find the number of physical links in a fully connected
mesh network with n nodes, we first consider that each
node must be connected to every other node.
• Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be
connected to n – 1 nodes, and finally node n must be
connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links.
However, if each physical link allows communication in
both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number
of links by 2.
 Mesh topology
• In other words, we can say that in a mesh
topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode
links.
• To accommodate that many links, every device
on the network must have n – 1 input/output
(VO) ports to be connected to the other n - 1
stations.
Mesh Topology
 Advantages of Mesh topology
1) Data can be transmitted from different
devices simultaneously. This topology can
withstand high traffic.
2) Even if one of the components fails there is
always an alternative present. So data
transfer doesn’t get affected.
3) Expansion and modification in topology can
be done without disrupting other nodes.
 Disadvantages of Mesh topology
1) There are high chances of redundancy in
many of the network connections.
2) Overall cost of this network is way too high as
compared to other network topologies.
3) Set-up and maintenance of this topology is
very difficult. Even administration of the
network is tough.
 Ring Topology
• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated
point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
• When a device receives a signal intended for
another device, its repeater regenerates the
bits and passes them along
Ring Topology
 Advantages of Ring Topology
1) This type of network topology is very organized. Each
node gets to send the data when it receives an
empty token. This helps to reduces chances of
collision. Also in ring topology all the traffic flows in
only one direction at very high speed.
2) Even when the load on the network increases, its
performance is better than that of Bus topology.
3) There is no need for network server to control the
connectivity between workstations.
4) Additional components do not affect the performance
of network.
5) Each computer has equal access to resources.
 Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1) Each packet of data must pass through all
the computers between source and
destination. This makes it slower than Star
topology.
2) If one workstation or port goes down, the
entire network gets affected.
3) Network is highly dependent on the wire
which connects different components.
4) MAU’s and network cards are expensive as
compared to Ethernet cards and hubs.
 Bus topology
• Bus Topology is the simplest of network topologies. In
this type of topology, all the nodes (computers as well
as servers) are connected to the single cable (called
bus), by the help of interface connectors. This central
cable is the backbone of the network and is known as
Bus (thus the name). Every workstation
communicates with the other device through this Bus.
• A signal from the source is broadcasted and it travels
to all workstations connected to bus cable. Although
the message is broadcasted but only the intended
recipient, whose MAC address or IP address matches,
accepts it.
 Bus topology
• If the MAC /IP address of machine doesn’t match with
the intended address, machine discards the signal.
• A terminator is added at ends of the central cable, to
prevent bouncing of signals.
• A barrel connector can be used to extend it.
 Advantages (benefits) of Linear Bus
Topology
1) It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.
2) Cable length required for this topology is the
least compared to other networks.
3) Bus topology costs very less.
4) Linear Bus network is mostly used in small
networks. Good for LAN.
 Disadvantages (Drawbacks) of Linear Bus
Topology
1) There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that
can be connected.
2) Dependency on central cable in this topology has its
disadvantages. If the main cable (i.e. bus) encounters some
problem, whole network breaks down.
3) Proper termination is required to dump signals. Use of terminators
is must.
4) It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station.
5) Maintenance costs can get higher with time.
6) Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number of devices
connected to it increases.
7) It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.
8) Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent
signal from the source.
 Tree topology
• Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star
and Bus Topology. In Physical Star network Topology,
computers (nodes) are connected by each other
through central hub. And also in Bus Topology, work
station devices are connected by the common cable
called Bus.
• In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks are
connected using Bus.
• This main cable seems like a main stem of a tree, and
other star networks as the branches. It is also
called Expanded Star Topology. Ethernet protocol is
commonly used in this type of topology
 Advantages of Tree Topology
It is an extension of Star and bus Topologies, so in networks
where these topologies can't be implemented individually
for reasons related to scalability, tree topology is the best
alternative.
Expansion of Network is possible and easy.
3. Here, we divide the whole network into segments (star
networks), which can be easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection and correction is easy.
5. Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point
wiring to the central hub.
6. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not
affected.
 Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Because of its basic structure, tree topology,
relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it
breaks whole network is damaged.
2. The maintenance becomes difficult as more
and more nodes and segments are added,
3. Scalability of the network depends on the
type of cable used.
 PROTOCOLS
• In computer networks, communication occurs between
entities in different systems.
• An entity is anything capable of sending or receiving
information.
• However, two entities cannot simply send bit streams to each
other and expect to be understood.
• For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a
protocol.
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
• A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated.
• The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and
timing.
 Syntax
• The term syntax refers to the structure or
format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented.
• For example, a simple protocol might expect
the first 8 bits of data to be the address of the
sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of
the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be
the message itself.
 Semantics
• The word semantics refers to the meaning of
each section of bits.
• How is a particular pattern to be interpreted,
and what action is to be taken based
• on that interpretation?
• For example, does an address identify the
route to be taken or the final destination of
the message?
 Timing
• The term timing refers to two characteristics:
 when data should be sent, and
 how fast they can be sent.
• For example, if a sender produces data at 100
Mbps but the receiver can process data at
only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload
the receiver and some data will be lost.
 Protocol suites and standards
• The use of standards in developing and implementing
protocols ensures that products from different
manufacturers can work together for efficient
communications.
• f a protocol is not rigidly observed by a particular
manufacturer, their equipment or software may not be
able to successfully communicate with products made by
other manufacturers.
• In data communications, for example, if one end of a
conversation is using a protocol to govern one-way
communication and the other end is assuming a protocol
describing two-way communication, in all probability, no
 Protocol suites and standards
• An example of the use of a protocol suite in network
communications is the interaction between a web
server and a web browser.
• This interaction uses a number of protocols and
standards in the process of exchanging information
between them.
• The different protocols work together to ensure that the
messages are received and understood by both parties.
• Examples of these protocols are:
 Application protocol
 Transport Protocol
 Internetwork Protocol
 Application protocols
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a
common protocol that governs the way that a
web server and a web client interact.
• HTTP defines the content and formatting of
the requests and responses exchanged
between the client and server.
• The HTTP protocol relies on other protocols to
govern how the messages are transported
between client and server.
 Transport Protocol
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the
transport protocol that manages the individual
conversations between web servers and web
clients.
• TCP divides the HTTP messages into smaller
pieces, called segments, to be sent to the
destination client. It is also responsible for
controlling the size and rate at which messages
are exchanged between the server and the client.
 Internetwork protocol
• The most common internetwork protocol is
Internet Protocol (IP).
• IP is responsible for taking the formatted
segments from TCP, encapsulating them into
packets, assigning the appropriate addresses,
and selecting the best path to the destination
host.
 Network access protocols
• Network access protocols describe two
primary functions, data link management and
the physical transmission of data on the
media.
• Data-link management protocols take the
packets from IP and format them to be
transmitted over the media.
Protocol Stack
 NETWORK MODELS
• A network is a combination of hardware and software that
sends data from one location to another.
• The hardware consists of the physical equipment that
carries signals from one point of the network to another.
The software consists of instruction sets that make possible
the services that we expect from a network.
• For example, the task of sending an e-mail from one point
in the world to another can be broken into several tasks,
each performed by a separate software package. Each
software package uses the services of another software
package.
• At the lowest layer, a signal, or a set of signals, is sent from
the source computer to the destination computer.
 LAYERED MODELS
• We use the concept of layers in our daily life.
As an example, let us consider two friends
who communicate through postal mail.
• The process of sending a letter to a friend
would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office the figure below
shows the steps:
Layered tasks
 Hierarchy
• According to our analysis, there are three different
activities at the sender site and another three
activities at the receiver site.
• The task of transporting the letter between the
sender and the receiver is done by the carrier.
• At the sender site, the letter must be written and
dropped in the mailbox before being picked up by
the letter carrier and delivered to the post office.
• At the receiver site, the letter must be dropped in
the recipient mailbox before being picked up and
read by the recipient.
 Services
• Each layer at the sending site uses the services of the layer
immediately below it.
• The sender at the higher layer uses the services of the middle
layer. The middle layer uses the services of the lower layer. The
lower layer uses the services of the carrier.
• The layered model that dominated data communications and
networking literature before 1990 was the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model.
• Everyone believed that the OSI model would become the
ultimate standard for data communications, but this did not
happen.
• The TCP/IP protocol suite became the dominant commercial
architecture because it was used and tested extensively in the
 OSI MODEL
• International Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards established 1947.
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
model.
• It was first introduced in the late 1970s. An open system is
a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without
requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware
 OSI MODEL
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for
understanding and designing a network architecture that is
flexible, robust, and interoperable.
• IBM mainframes use Systems Network Architecture (SNA)
that is a set of layered protocols like the OSI model. However,
the SNA layers are not directly comparable to the OSI model
layers. This makes interoperability between PC-based
networks and IBM mainframes more difficult.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of
network systems that allows communication between all
types of computer systems.
• It consists of Seven separate but related layers, each of
which defines a part of the process of moving information
across a network.
OSI Seven layers
 OSI model operation
• When two systems communicate on the
network, information is sent down through
the protocol stack of one system, over the
cable and then up through the protocol stack
to the appropriate layer on the other system.
The interaction between layers in the OSI
model
 OSI model operation
• At the physical layer, communication is direct.
• In the Figure above, device A sends a stream of bits to device B
(through intermediate nodes). At the higher layers, however,
communication must move down through the layers on device A,
over to device B, and then back up through the layers.
• Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the
message it receives from the layer just above it and passes the
whole package to the layer just below it.
• At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form that can be
transmitted to the receiving device. At the receiving machine, the
message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each process receiving
and removing the data meant for it. For example, layer 2 removes
the data meant for it, and then passes the rest to layer 3. Layer 3
then removes the data meant for it and passes the rest to layer 4,
and so on.
Important concepts to understand OSI
layering
– Each layer performs unique and specific task.
– A layer only has knowledge of its immediately
adjacent layers.
– A layer uses services of the layer below.
– A layer performs functions and provides services
to the layer above.
– The application layer is unique among the seven
layers in that, it has no layer above.
– Each layer contains functions that provide specific
services for facilitating a communication.
 Layer 1—Physical layer
• This is the physical and electrical medium for data
transfer.
• It includes but is not limited to cables, jacks, patch
panels, punch blocks, hubs, and MAUs.
• This layer is also known as the physical plant.
• Concepts related to the physical layer include topologies,
analog versus digital/encoding, bit synchronization,
baseband versus broadband, multiplexing, and serial (5-
volt logic) data transfer.
• If you can touch a network element, it is part of the
physical layer, which makes this layer one of the easiest
to understand.
•
 Layer 2—Data link layer (DLL)
• This layer establishes, maintains, and decides how transfer
is accomplished over the physical layer.
• Devices that exist on the DLL are network interface cards
and bridges.
• This layer also ensures error-free transmission over the
physical layer under LAN transmissions. It does so through
physical addresses (the hexadecimal address that is burned
into the ROM of the NIC), otherwise known as the MAC
address (to be discussed more later in this lesson). Just
about any device that makes a physical connection to a
network and has the ability to move data is on the data link
layer.
• The unit of measurement used on this layer is frames.
 Layer 3—Network layer
• This layer is dedicated to routing and switching information to
different networks, LANs, or internetworks.
• This can be on a LAN or WAN (wide area network). Devices
that exist on the network layer are routers and IP switches.
• Here, we are getting into the logical addressing of hosts.
Instead of physical addresses, the addressing system of the
computer is stored in the operating system—for example, IP
addresses.
• Now you can see that a typical computer will really have two
addresses: a physical or hardware-based address such as a
MAC address, and a logical or software-based address such as
an IP address. Part of the trick in networking is to make sure
the two addresses get along together.
 Layer 4—Transport layer
• This layer ensures error-free transmission between hosts
through logical addressing. Therefore, it manages the
transmission of messages through layers 1 through 3.
• The protocols that are categorized by this layer break up
messages, send them through the subnet, and ensure correct
reassembly at the receiving end, making sure there are no
duplicates or lost messages.
• This layer contains both connection-oriented and
connectionless systems, which will be covered later in the
book. Inbound and outbound ports are controlled by this layer.
• When you think “ports,” think the transport layer.
• The unit of measurement used on this layer is sometimes
referred to as segments or messages.
• All layers above this one use the terms “data” and “messages.”
 Layer 5—Session layer
• This layer governs the establishment,
termination, and synchronization of sessions
within the OS over the network and between
hosts—for example, when you log on and log
off.
• This is the layer that controls the name and
address database for the OS or NOS.
• NetBIOS (Network Basic Input Output System)
works on this layer
 Layer 6—Presentation layer
• This layer translates the data format from
sender to receiver in the various OSes that
may be used.
• Concepts include code conversion, data
compression, and file encryption.
• Redirectors work on this layer, such as
mapped network drives that enable a
computer to access file shares on a remote
computer
 Layer 7—Application layer
• This layer is where message creation—and,
therefore packet Creation begins.
• DB access is on this level. End-user protocols such
as FTP, SMTP, Telnet, and RAS work at this layer.
• For example, suppose you are using Outlook
Express. You type a message and click Send.
• This initiates SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
and other protocols, which send the mail message
down through the other layers, breaking it into
packets at the network layer and so on
 Organization of the Layers
• The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to
three subgroups.
• Layers 1, 2, and 3- physical, data link, and network-
are the network support layers; they deal with the
physical aspects of moving data from one device to
another (such as electrical specifications, physical
connections, physical addressing, and transport
timing and reliability).
• Layers 5, 6, and 7-session, presentation, and
application-can be thought of as the user support
layers; they allow interoperability among unrelated
 Organization of the Layers
• Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two
subgroups and ensures that what the lower
layers have transmitted is in a form that the
upper layers can use.
• The upper OSI layers (layer 5 through layer 7)
are almost always implemented in software;
lower layers (layer 1 through layer 4) are a
combination of hardware and software,
except for the physical layer, which is mostly
hardware.
Organisation of OSI 7 layers
 Data encapsulation in OSI model
• D7 means the data unit at layer 7, D6 means the data unit at
layer 6, and so on. The process starts at layer 7 (the application
layer), then moves from layer to layer in descending, sequential
order. At each layer, a header, or possibly a trailer, can be added
to the data unit. Commonly, the trailer is added only at layer 2.
• Upon reaching its destination, the signal passes into layer 1 and
is transformed back into digital form.
• The data units then move back up through the OSI layers. As
each block of data reaches the next higher layer, the headers
and trailers attached to it at the corresponding sending layer
are removed, and actions appropriate to that layer are taken.
• By the time it reaches layer 7, the message is again in a form
appropriate to the application and is made available to the
recipient.
Data encapsulation in OSI model
OSI 7 layers with corresponding
components
 CHAPTER II: APPLICATION
LAYERS FUNCTIONALITY AND
PROTOCOLS
Interfacing human and networks
 OSI and TCP/IP Model
• The OSI reference model is a layered, abstract
representation created as a guideline for network protocol
design and instruction.
• The OSI model divides the networking process into seven
logical layers, each of which has unique functionality and
to which are assigned specific services and protocols.
• In the OSI model, information is passed from one layer to
the next, starting at the application layer on the
transmitting host and proceeding down the hierarchy to
the physical layer, then passing over the communications
channel to the destination host, where the information
proceeds back up the hierarchy, ending at the application
layer.
 OSI and TCP/IP Model
• The following explains the six steps:
1. People create the communication.
2. The application layer prepares human communication for
transmission over the data network.
3. Software and hardware convert communication to a digital
format.
4. Application layer services initiate the data transfer.
5. Each layer plays its role. The OSI layers encapsulate data
down the stack. Encapsulated data travels across the media
to the destination. OSI layers at the destination
unencapsulate the data up the stack.
6. The application layer receives data from the network and
OSI Encapsulation Process in Six Steps
OSI Model and TCP/IP
TCP/IP Layers Description
TCP/IP Model Protocol
 Application Layer Software
• The functions associated with the application layer
protocols in both the OSI and the TCP/IP models
enable the human network to interface with the
underlying data network.
• When you open a web browser or an instant message
window, an application is started, and the program is
put into the device memory, where it is executed.
• Each executing program loaded on a device is referred
to as a process.
• Within the application layer, there are two forms of
software programs or processes that provide access to
the network: applications and services.
 Network-Aware Applications
• Some end-user applications are network
aware, meaning that they implement the
application layer protocols and are able to
communicate directly with the lower layers of
the protocol stack. E-mail clients and web
browsers are examples of these types of
applications.
 Application Layer Services
• Other programs, such as file transfer or network
print spooling, might need the assistance of
application layer services to use network resources.
• Although transparent to the user, these services
interface with the network and prepare the data
for transfer.
• Different types of data whether it is text, graphics,
or video—require different network services to
ensure that it is properly prepared for processing
by the functions occurring at the lower layers of OSI
model.
 Making provisions for Applications and
Services
• When people attempt to access information on their device,
whether it is a PC, laptop, PDA, cell phone, or some other
device connected to a network, the data might not be
physically stored on their device.
• If that is the case, a request to access that information must
be made to the device where the data resides.
• The following sections cover three topics that will help you
understand how the request for data can occur and how the
request is filled:
 Client/server model
 Peer-to-peer networking and applications
 Application layer services and protocols(it will be
discussed separately in the next section)
 Client/server model
• In the client/server model, the device requesting the
information is called a client and the device responding to the
request is called a server.Client and server processes are
considered to be in the application layer.
• The client begins the exchange by requesting data from the
server, which responds by sending one or more streams of data
to the client. Application layer protocols describe the design of
the requests and responses between clients and servers.
• Although the client/server model can be used by programs
within a single computer, it is a more important concept
for networking. In this case, the client establishes a connection
to the server over a local area network (LAN) or wide-area
network (WAN), such as the Internet. Once the server has
fulfilled the client's request, the connection is terminated.
 Client/server model
• Your Web browser is a client program that has requested a
service from a server; in fact, the service and resource the
server provided is the delivery of this Webpage.
• Most business applications use the client/server model as does
the Internet's main program, TCP/IP.
• One example of a client/server network is a corporate
environment where employees use a company e-mail server to
send, receive, and store e-mail. The e-mail client on an
employee computer issues a request to the e-mail server for
any unread mail. The server responds by sending the requested
e-mail to the client.
• Another example is bank account transaction, when you check
your bank account from your computer, a client program in your
computer forwards a request to a server program at the bank.
 Client/server model
• That program may in turn forward a request to its own client
program, which then sends a request to a database server at
another bank computer. Once your account balance has been
retrieved from the database, it is returned back to the bank
data client, which in turn serves it back to the client in your
personal computer, which then displays the information to you.
• Although data is typically described as flowing from the server
to the client, some data always flows from the client to the
server. Data flow can be equal in both directions or can even be
greater in the direction going from the client to the server.
• For example, a client might transfer a file to the server for
storage purposes. Data transfer from a client to a server is
referred to as an upload, and data from a server to a client is
known as a download.
Client/Server Model
 Servers
• Both client programs and server programs are often part of
a larger program or application.
• Because multiple client programs share the services of the
same server program, a special server called a daemon may
be activated just to await client requests.
 Peer-to-peer (P2P) networking and
applications
• In a peer-to-peer network, two or more computers are
connected through a network and can share resources
such as printers and files without having a dedicated
server.
• Every connected end device, known as a peer, can
function as either a server or a client.
• One computer might assume the role of server for one
transaction while simultaneously serve as a client for
another.
• Examples: Napster (free sharing audio files, typically
music, encoded in MP3 format), Gnutella (free file
sharing), Freenet (allows files sharing browse and publish
P2P Network
 Applications layer services examples
• Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a
software version of a physical terminal, and it allows a
user to log on to a remote host. To do so, the application
creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote
host. The user's computer talks to the software terminal
which, in turn, talks to the host, and vice versa. The
remote host believes it is communicating with one of its
own terminals and allows the user to log on.
• File transfer, access, and management. This application
allows a user to access files in a remote host (to make
changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote
computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or
control files in a remote computer locally.
 Applications layer services examples
• Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-
mail forwarding and storage.
• Directory services. This application provides distributed
database sources and access for global information about
various objects and services.
• The figure below shows the relationship of the application
layer to the user and the presentation layer.
• Of the many application services available, the figure
shows only three: XAOO (message-handling services),
X.500 (directory services), and file transfer, access, and
management (FTAM).
• The user in this example employs XAOO to send an e-mail
Application layer Services examples
 Applications layer protocols
• Application layer ISO OSI protocols are used by both the source and
destination devices during a communication session. In order for the
communications to be successful, the application layer protocols
implemented on the source and destination host must match.
Protocols establish consistent rules for exchanging data between
applications and services loaded on the participating devices.
• Layer 7 the application layer is where protocols like HTTP, FTP, DNS,
IMAP, Telnet, SMTP and POP3 reside. The application layer is not the
applications themselves (Internet Explorer or Outlook), but rather
the protocols that the applications initiate, such as HTTP or POP3.
• For example, when you open Internet Explorer, you are opening an
application. If you were to type http://www.microsoft.com in the
URL field and press Enter, doing so would initiate the HTTP protocol
starting the transfer of data over the OSI model, beginning with the
application layer.
 Applications layer protocols
• HTTP:Stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol
• HTTP is a common protocol that governs the way that a web server
and a web client interact. HTTP defines the content and formatting
of the requests and responses exchanged between the client and
server. Both the client and the web server software implement
HTTP as part of the application. The HTTP protocol relies on other
protocols to govern how the messages are transported between
client and server.
• It is known as the Web’s application layer protocol.
• When a web address (or URL) is typed into a web browser, the web
browse restablishes a connection to the web service running on
the server using the HTTP.
• HTTPS: Stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure, it is the
same as HTTP but its communication between web server and web
HTTP Protocol
 Domain Name Server: DNS
• DNS: provides translation between host name and IP address
• In data networks, devices are labelled with numeric IP addresses, so
that they can participate in sending and receiving messages over the
network. However, most people have a hard time remembering this
numeric address. Hence, domain names were created to convert the
numeric address into a simple, recognizable name. On the Internet
these domain names, for examples
• www.cisco.com, are much easier for people to remember than
198.133.219.25, which is the actual numeric address for this server.
• www.google.com are also much easier for people to remember than
72.14.207.99, which is the actual numeric address for this server.
• The DNS protocol defines an automated service that matches
resource names with the required numeric network address.
• A DNS server is responsible for informing all other computers on the
Internet about the domain name and the web site address.
DNS Protocol
 SMTP, IMAP and POP Protocols
• FTP: File Transfer Protocol is used for interactive file transfer
between systems i.e It used for transferring files between two
hosts.
• When an FTP session exists between two hosts, then either host
can transfer a file to the other host during the session.

• SMTP and POP

• E-mail, the most popular network service, has revolutionized how
people communicatethrough its simplicity and speed. Yet to run
on a computer or other end device, e-mailrequires several
applications and services.
• Two example Application layer protocols are Post Office Protocol
(POP) and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), shown in the
figure.
 SMTP, IMAP and POP Protocols
• When people compose e-mail messages, they typically use an
application called a Mail User Agent (MUA), or e-mail client.
The MUA allows messages to be sent and places received
messages into the client's mailbox, both of which are distinct
processes.
• In order to receive e-mail messages from an e-mail server, the
e-mail client can use POP. Sending e-mail from either a client or
a server uses message formats and command strings defined by
the SMTP protocol. Usually an e-mail client provides the
functionality of both protocols within one application.
• SMTP is used to send e-mail
• POP,HTTP and IMAP(Internet Message Access Protocol) are
used to deliver e-mail and are known as Media access control
protocol.
SMTP, IMAP and POP Protocols
 TELNET Protocol
• Telnet: Terminal emulation protocol, is used to provide
remote access to servers and networking devices.
CHAPTER III: OSI TRANSPORT
LAYER
 Introduction
• Data networks and the Internet support the human
network by supplying seamless, reliable
communication among people—both locally and
around the globe.
• On a single device, people can use multiple services,
such as e-mail, the web, and instant messaging, to
send messages or retrieve information. Applications
such as e-mail clients, web browsers, and instant
messaging clients allow people to use computers and
networks to send messages and find information.
• The Transport Layer is responsible for flow control
and ensuring messages are delivered error free.
 Introduction
• On the sending side, messages are packaged for efficient
transmission at the Transport Layer and assigned a tracking
number so they can be reassembled in proper order.
• On the receiving side, the packets are reassembled,
checked for errors and acknowledged. The
Transport Layer performs error handling in that it ensures
all data is received in the proper sequence and without
errors. If there are errors, the data is retransmitted.
• Common protocols that operate at the transport layer
include TCP, UDP, SPX, and NetBEUI.
• The processes described in the OSI transport layer accept
data from the application layer and prepare it for
addressing at the network layer.
 Roles of transport layers
• Distinguishes between upper layer applications
by enabling multiple applications to communicate
over the network at the same time on a single
device
• Establishes end-to-end connectivity between
applications
• Defines flow control
• Provides data transfer by ensuring that, if
required, all the data is received reliably/
unreliably and in order by the correct application.
 Primary responsibilities of the transport
layer
• Tracking the individual communications between
applications on the source and destination hosts
• Segmenting data and managing each piece
• Reassembling the segments into streams of
application data
• Identifying the different applications
• Performing flow control between end users
• Enabling error recovery
• The transport layer enables applications on devices
to communicate
 TCP Protocol-Communication with
Reliability
• At the transport layer, the three basic
operations of reliability are
 Tracking transmitted data
 Acknowledging received data
 Retransmitting any unacknowledged data
Reliable Transport Layer
Transmission with flow of control
• Manageable data flow is maintained in order
to avoid congestion, overloading, and data
loss
• The types of flow control are buffering,
windowing, and congestion avoidance
• Windows are used to control the amount of
outstanding, unacknowledged data segments
• Acknowledgment
Windows
Acknowledgment
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, described in RFC
793.
• TCP incurs additional overhead to gain functions.
Additional functions specified by TCP are same-order
delivery, reliable delivery, and flow control.
• Each TCP segment has 20 bytes of overhead in the
header encapsulating the application layer data, whereas
each UDP segment has only 8 bytes of overhead.
• The following applications use TCP:
 Web browsers
 E-mail
 File transfers
TCP Datagram
 TCP segment fields
• Source port: The port number of the application on the host sending
the data
• Destination port: The port number of the application requested on
the destination host.
• Sequence number: Puts the data back in the correct order or
retransmits missing or damaged data, a process called sequencing.
• Acknowledgment number: Defines which TCP octet is expected next.
• Header length: The number of 32-bit words in the TCP header. This
indicates where the data begins. The TCP header (even one including
options) is an integral number of 32 bits in length.
• Reserved: Always set to zero.
• Code bits: Control functions used to set up and terminate a session.
• Window The window size the sender is willing to accept, in octets.
 TCP segment fields
• Checksum The cyclic redundancy check (CRC), because TCP
doesn’t trust the lower layers and checks everything. The CRC
checks the header and data fields.
• Urgent: A valid field only if the Urgent pointer in the code bits is
set.
• If so, this value indicates the offset from the current sequence
number, in octets, where the first segment of non-urgent data
begins.
• Options: May be 0 or a multiple of 32 bits, if any. What this means
is that no options have to be present (option size of 0). However, if
any options are used that do not cause the option field to total a
multiple of 32 bits, padding of 0s must be used to make sure the
data begins on a 32-bit boundary.
• Data Handed down to the TCP protocol at the Transport layer,
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• UDP is a simple, connectionless protocol,
described in RFC 768. It has the advantage of
providing low-overhead data delivery. The
segments of communication in UDP are called
datagrams. UDP sends datagrams as “best effort.”
• Applications that use UDP include:
 Domain Name System (DNS)
 Video streaming
 Voice over IP (VoIP)
UDP Datagram
 UDP Datagram fields
• Source port: Port number of the application
on the host sending the data.
• Destination port: Port number of the
application requested on the destination host.
• Length: Length of UDP header and UDP data.
• Checksum: Checksum of both the UDP header
and UDP data fields.
• Data Upper-layer data.
CHAPTER IV: OSI NETWORK
LAYER
 Introduction
• When the transport layer sends the protocol data unit
(PDU) down to the network layer, the PDU needs the
essentials of any successful journey: a destination address
and directions on how to arrive efficiently and safely.
• This section describes the process the network layer uses
to convert transport layer segments into packets and get
them started on their journey down the right path across
different networks to the destination network.
• You learn how the network layer divides networks into
groups of hosts to manage the flow of data packets and
how communication between networks is facilitated. This
facilitation of communication between networks is called
routing.
Communication from Host to Host
• The Network Layer is primarily concerned with
addressing and routing.
• Logical addresses (e.g., an IP address) are
translated into physical addresses (i.e., the MAC
address) for transmission at the network layer.
• On the receiving side, the translation process is
reversed. It is at the network layer where the
route from the source to destination computer is
determined.
• Traffic control measures are also implemented at
the network layer.
Communication from Host to Host
• The two most common protocols that make up
the transport layer and the network layer are
TCP/IP (Transport Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) and IPX/SPX(Internet Packet
Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange). Both
protocols are supported by Win X, NT, 2000.
• TCP/IP is used by the Internet, the TCP portion of
the Protocol is responsible for error checking and
therefore operates in the transport layer.
• The IP portion of the protocol makes up the
Network Layer and its responsible for routing.
Tasks performed by network layer
• Addressing packets with an IP address
• Encapsulation
• Routing
• De-capsulation
 Addressing and Encapsulation
• Addressing
• IP requires each sending and receiving device to have a
unique IP address. Devices in IP networks that have IP
addresses are called hosts. The IP address of the sending host
is known as the source IP address, and the IP address of the
receiving host is referred to as the destination IP address.
• Encapsulation
• Each PDU sent between networks needs to be identified with
source and destination IP
• addresses in an IP header. The IP header contains the
address information and some other
• bits that identify the PDU as a network layer PDU. This
process of adding information is called encapsulation.
 Routing
• When a packet is encapsulated at the network layer, it contains all the
information necessary to travel to networks near and far.
• The journey between networks can be very short and relatively simple,
or it can be complex and involve many steps between routers connected
to different networks. Routers are devices that connect networks
• Routing is the process routers perform when receiving packets, analyzing
the destination address information, using the address information to
select a path for the packet, and then forwarding the packet on to the
next router on the selected network. Along the way, at least one
intermediate node typically is encountered. Each route that a packet
takes to reach the next device is called a hop.
• Routing is often contrasted with bridging, which might seem to
accomplish precisely the same thing to the casual observer.
• The primary difference between the two is that bridging occurs at Layer
2 (the data link layer) of the OSI reference model, whereas routing
occurs at Layer 3 (the network layer).
Multiple Network Paths between Hosts
Grouping hosts by Physical Location
Grouping Hosts for a Specific Purpose
Grouping Hosts for Ownership
Routing-How data packets are handled: The default
gateways are members of their own local networks
IP Address and Gateway Configuration in
Windows
 Basics on routing
• Routing Table
• remote network
• Dynamic routes
• Best Path
• Hop count
• Bandwidth
• Delivery and Forwarding of Packet
• Direct Delivery
• Indirect Delivery
• Forwarding
 Forwarding Techniques
Next Hop Method: The routing table holds only the address
of the next hop instead of information about the complete
route. The entries of a routing table must be consistent with
each other
 Network-Specific Method
• Instead of having an entry for every destination host connected to the same
physical network, We have only one entry that defines the address of the
destination network itself. In other words, we treat all hosts connected to the
same network as one single entity. For example, if 1000 hosts are attached to
the same network, only one entry exists in the routing table instead of 1000
 Host-Specific Method
The destination
host address
is given in the
routing table
 Default Method
• instead of listing all networks in the entire Internet,
host A can just have one entry called the default
(normally defined as network address 0.0.0.0).
Netid and Hostid
Block is a range of addresses
Network Mask
Network Addresses: Special Purpose
Network Addresses: Special Purpose
Private IP Addresses
 IP subnetting
• To create subnetworks, you take bits from the
host portion of the IP address and reserve
them to define the subnet address.
• Powers of 2 are important to understand and
memorize for use with IP subnetting.
 Subnet Mask
• A subnet mask is a 32-bit value that allows the
recipient of IP packets to distinguish the
network ID portion of the IP address from the
host ID portion of the IP address.
Class Format DefaultSubnet
Mask

A NETWORK.NODE.NODE.NODE 255.0.0.0

B NETWORK.NETWORK.NODE.NODE 255.255.0.0

C NETWORK.NETWORK.NETWORK.NODE 255.255.255.0
 Subnetting
• When you’ve chosen a possible subnet mask for your
network and need to determine the number of subnets,
valid hosts, and broadcast addresses of a subnet that the
mask provides, all you need to do is answer five simple
questions:
1. How many subnets does the chosen subnet mask
produce?
2. How many valid hosts per subnet are available?
3. What are the valid subnets?
4. What’s the broadcast address of each subnet?
5. What are the valid hosts in each subnet?
 Subnetting in practice
• How many subnets?
• 2x= number of subnets. X is the number of masked bits, or the
1s.
• For example, in 11000000/26, the number of 1s gives us 22
• subnets. In this example, there are 4 subnets
•
• How many hosts per subnet?
• 2y – 2 = number of hosts per subnet. y is the number of
unmasked bits, or the 0s.
• For example, in 11000000, the number of 0s gives us 2 6 – 2
hosts. In this example, there are 62 hosts per subnet. You
need to subtract 2 for the subnet address and the broadcast
address, which are not valid hosts.
 Subnetting in practice
• What are the valid subnets
• 256 – subnet mask = block size, or increment number.
An example would be 256 – 192 = 64. The block size of a
192 mask is always 64. Start counting at zero in blocks
of 64 until you reach the subnet mask value and these
are your subnets. 0, 64, 128, 192.
•
• What’s the broadcast address for each subnet?
• Now here’s the really easy part… Since we counted our
subnets in the last section as 0, 64, 128, and 192, the
broadcast address is always the number right before the
next subnet.
 Subnetting in practice
• For example, the 0 subnet has a broadcast address of 63
because the next subnet is 64.
• The 64 subnet has a broadcast address of 127 because the
next subnet is 128.
• And so on. And remember, the broadcast of the last subnet
is always 255.
• What are the valid hosts?
• Valid hosts are the numbers between the subnets, omitting
the all 0s and all 1s.
• For example, if 64 is the subnet number and 127 is the
broadcast address, then 65–126 is the valid host range it’s
always the numbers between the subnet address and the
CHAPTER V: OSI DATA LINK LAYER
 Introduction
• To support communication, the OSI model divides the
functions of a data network into layers. So far in this
module, you have learned about the following layers:
The application layer provides the interface to the
user.
The transport layer is responsible for dividing and
managing communications between the processes
running in the two end systems.
The network layer protocols organize communication
data so that it can travel across
internetworks from the originating host to a
 Data link Layer sub layers
• The Data link Layer is divided into two sub
layers:
• Media Access Control (MAC) : It controls the
means by which multiple devices share
the same media channel for the transmission
of information.
• Logical Link Control (LLC): It establishes and
maintains links between communication
devices
Data link layer
Data link layer links the software and
hardware layers
 Data Link layer frame
• Data Link layer frame includes:
 Data - The packet from the Network layer
 Header - Contains control information, such as addressing, and is
located at the beginning of the PDU
 Trailer - Contains control information added to the end of the
PDU
• Formatting Data for Transmission: When data travels on the
media, it is converted into a stream of bits, or 1s and 0s. If a node
is receiving long streams of bits, how does it determine where a
frame starts and stops or which bits represent the address?
• Framing breaks the stream into decipherable groupings, with
control information inserted in the header and trailer as values in
different fields. This format gives the physical signals a structure
that can be received by nodes and decoded into packets at the
destination.
 Data Link layer frame structure
Start and stop indicator fields - The beginning and end limits of the frame
Naming or addressing fields
Type field - The type of PDU contained in the frame
Quality - control fields
A data field -The frame payload (Network layer packet)
Fields at the end of the frame form the trailer. These fields are used to detect errors and to
mark the end of the frame.
CHAPTER VI: OSI PHYSICAL LAYER
Physical Layer
 Communication Signals
• The delivery of frames across the local media
requires the following Physical layer elements:
 The physical media and associated
connectors
 A representation of bits on the media
 Encoding of data and control information
 Transmitter and receiver circuitry on the
network devices
Signaling methods
 Physical Media
• The media does not carry the frame as a single
entity. The media carries signals, one at a
time, to represent the bits that make up the
frame.
• There are three basic forms of network media
on which data is represented:
 Copper cable: UTP, STP, Coaxial cables
 Fiber: Monomode, multimode
 Wireless
CHAPTER VII ETHERNET
Introduction and Overview of Ethernet
• The LAN market has seen several technologies
such as Ethernet, token ring, token, bus, FDDI,
and ATM LAN.
• Some of these technologies survived for a while,
but Ethernet is by far the dominant technology.
• However, Ethernet standards have evolved to
continue meeting the needs of LANs.
• Ethernet has undergone changes in the type of
media used and the available speed of Ethernet.
 Ethernet Cabling
• Three types of Ethernet cables are available:
 Straight-through cable
 Crossover cable
 Rolled cable
 Straight-Through Cable: RJ 11

• Only pins 1, 2, 3, and 6 are used. Just connect

1 to 1, 2 to 2, 3 to 3, and 6 to 6and you’ll be up
and networking in no time.
• Voice, Token Ring, ISDN, and so on
 Crossover Cable
• The crossover cable can be used to connect
 Switch to switch
 Hub to hub
 Host to host
 Hub to switch
 Router direct to host
• The same four wires are used in this cable as in the
straight-through cable; we just connect different pins
together.
• Instead of connecting 1 to 1, 2 to 3, and so on, here we
connect pins 1 to 3 and 2 to 6 on each side of the cable.
Ethernet crossover cable: RJ 11
 Rolled Cable
• Although rolled cable isn’t used to connect any Ethernet
connections together, you can
• use a rolled Ethernet cable to connect a host to a router
console serial communication (com) port.
• If you have a Cisco router or switch, you would use this
cable to connect your PC running HyperTerminal to the
Cisco hardware. Eight wires are used in this cable to
connect serial devices, although not all eight are used to
send information, just as in Ethernet networking.
• These are probably the easiest cables to make because
you just cut the end off one side of a straight-through
cable, turn it over and put it back on (with a new
Rolled Cable
RJ 45 Cable
RJ 45 Straight Through Cable
RJ 45 Crossover cable
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP)
• DHCP provides safe, reliable, and simple
TCP/IP network configuration, prevents
address conflict, and helps conserve the use of
IP addresses through centralized management
of address allocation
• DHCP uses a client server model and is bases
on lease for IP addresses.
• A DHCP client passes through four phases as it
acquires a lease from the DHCP server.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) finds the hardware address of a host
from a known IP address.
• Anytime a host or a router has an IP datagram to send to another host
or router, it has the logical (IP) address of the receiver.
• But the IP datagram must be encapsulated in a frame to be able to pass
through the physical network.
• This means that the sender needs the physical address of the receiver.
• If IP doesn’t find the destination host’s hardware address in the ARP
cache, it uses ARP to find this information.
• ARP Protocol is positioned in the network layer of TCP/IP Protocol suite.
• On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is
identified by a physical or station address that is usually imprinted on
the NIC.
• RARP finds the logical address for a machine that only knows its
physical address
CHAPTER VIII PLANNING AND
CABLING NETWORKS
LANs-Making Physical Connection
• Three of the main networking devices that
make up a LAN are the router, switch, and
hub.
• Each LAN has a router as its gateway
connecting the LAN to other networks.
• Inside the LAN will be one or more hubs or
switches to connect the end devices to the
LAN.
 Addressing Scheme
• Within each IPv4 network, there are three types of
addresses:
 Network address: A special address that refers to the
network
 Broadcast address: A special address used to send data to
all hosts in the network
 Host addresses: The unicast addresses assigned to the
end devices in the network
• Within each network, there are two addresses that cannot
be assigned to devices: network address and broadcast
address.
• The other addresses allocated to a network are the host
addresses to be assigned to the individual devices.
CHAPTER X. CONFIGURING AND
TESTING YOUR NETWORK
 CISCO Devices Configuration -IOS Basics
• Network devices depend on two types of software for
their operation: operating system and configuration.
• Like the operating system in any computer, the operating
system facilitates the basic operation of the device's
hardware components.
• Configuration files contain the Cisco IOS software
commands used to customize the functionality of a Cisco
device.
• A Cisco network device contains two configuration files:
 The running configuration file - used during the current
operation of the device
 The startup configuration file - used as the backup
configuration and is loaded when the device is started
 Internetwork Operating System (IOS)
• The operating system software used in Cisco routers is
known as Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS).
• Cisco IOS manages the hardware and software resources of
the router, including memory allocation, processes, security,
and file systems.
• Cisco IOS is a multitasking operating system that is integrated
with routing, switching, internetworking, and
telecommunications functions.
• The major modes of Cisco IOS are:
 User executive mode
 Privileged executive mode
 Global configuration mode
 PART II ROUTING PROTOCOLS
AND CONCEPTS

CHAPTER XI: INTRODUCTION TO ROUTING AND

PACKET FORWARDING
 Router
• A router is a computer, just like any other computer
including a PC
• The very first router, used for the Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) on August 30,
1969.
• Routers have many of the same hardware and software
components that are found in other computers
including:
 CPU
 RAM
 ROM

 CLI Configuration and Addressing
• There are several ways to access the CLI environment.
The most usual methods are:
 Console
 Telnet or SSH
 AUX port
• The console port is often used to access a device
when the networking services have not been started
or have failed
• Telnet and SSH: A method for remotely accessing a CLI
session is to telnet to the router. Unlike the console
connection, Telnet sessions require active networking
 Router Configuration
• When configuring a router, certain basic tasks
are performed including:
Naming the router
Setting passwords
Configuring interfaces
Configuring a banner
Saving changes on a router
Verifying basic configuration and router
operations
CHAPTER XII: ROUTING
STANDARDS
Dynamic Routing versus Static Routing
• Routing tables can contain directly connected, manually
configured static routes and routes learned dynamically
using a routing protocol
• Static routing has several primary uses, including:
 Providing ease of routing table maintenance in smaller
networks that are not expected to grow significantly.
 Routing to and from a stub network, which is a network
with only one default route out and no knowledge of
any remote networks.
 Accessing a single default route (which is used to
represent a path to any network that does not have a
more specific match with another route in the routing
 Static routing
• Static routes should be used in the following cases:
 A network consists of only a few routers. Using a dynamic
routing protocol in such a casedoes not present any substantial
benefit. On the contrary, dynamic routing may add
moreadministrative overhead.
 A network is connected to the Internet only through a single ISP.
There is no need to use adynamic routing protocol across this
link because the ISP represents the only exit point to theInternet.
• Static Routing is a simplistic approach but it has the following
shortcomings
– Cumbersome to configure
– Cannot adapt to addition of new links or nodes
– Cannot adapt to link or node failures
– Cannot easily handle multiple paths to a destination
– Does not scale to large networks.
 Dynamic routing Protocols
• Dynamic routing protocols help the network
administrator manage the time-consuming and
exacting process of configuring and maintaining
static routes.
• Dynamic routing protocols work well in any type
of network consisting of several routers.
• They are scalable and automatically determine
better routes if there is a change in the topology.
• Although there is more to the configuration of
dynamic routing protocols, they are simpler to
configure in a large network.
Dynamic Routing Protocols
 Dynamic Routing Protocols
• RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
• IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
• EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol)
• OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
• IS-IS (Intermediate System-to-Intermediate
System)
• BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)
 References
1. Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications And Networking 4th
Edition
2. Andrew S. Tanenbaum, David J. Wetherall [2011], Computer
Networks Fifth Edition
3. Behrouz A. Forouzan[2006], TCP/IP Protocol Suite Fourth Edition
4. Mark A. Dye, Rick McDonald Antoon W. Rufi [2008], Network
Fundamentals CCNA Exploration Companion Guide
5. John Wiley & Sons, Inc[2011], Networking Fundamentals, Exam 98-
366
6. Todd Lammle [2006],CCNA INTRO Introduction to Cisco Networking
Technologies
7. Study Guide Exam 640-821
8. Allan Johnson, Routing Protocols and Concepts, CCNA Exploration
9. CISCO Networking Academy, Routing Protocols and Concepts, CCNA
Exploration Version 4.