Unit 4

Micro-organisms

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 Micro-organisms
They are tiny living organisms that are usually too small to be seen
with the naked eye.
Most micro-organisms are unicellular, although some do contain
more than one cell.
There are five main groups of micro-organisms. These groups are:
protozoa, fungi, bacteria, algae and viruses.
1. Protozoa
Protozoa are eukaryotes and unicellular organisms that lack a cell
wall.
Most of them are motile (able to move), and include organisms
such as Amoeba, Plasmodium
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 2. Fungi
They are eukaryotes and have cell wall. They consist of yeasts and
molds.
They obtain their food from other dead or living organisms.
They are extremely important as decomposers and recycle nutrients.
Yeasts are single-celled organisms.
Each yeast cell has a nucleus, cytoplasm and a membrane. yeasts
reproduce by asexual budding.
Th­ese include brewer’s yeast and baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces) as
well as the yeast that causes thrush in humans (Candida).
Moulds are fungi that are made up of minute, thread-like structures,
producing
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 3. Algae
Algae are an important group of organisms.
Many are large (the seaweeds are all algae), but some algae are
unicellular.
They obtain their nutrition using photosynthesis. ­
The unicellular algae are part of the plankton, providing food for
fish and other larger organisms.
Some unicellular algae are motile – they can move.
For example, an alga called Chlamydomonas has two flagella.

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 4. Viruses
Viruses are even smaller than bacteria.
The basic virus is not even a cell
It has no nucleus and no cytoplasm but it does have genetic material
surrounded by a protein coat.
They usually have regular geometric shapes.
Viruses cannot independently carry out any of the processes
common to all living organisms.
They can only reproduce by taking over another living cell. So they
are all parasites.
As far as we know, all naturally occurring viruses cause disease.
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 5. Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled organisms, prokaryotes and no true nucleus.
All bacteria have a cell wall made from peptidoglycan makes it rigid,
a cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes and the genetic information.
Some bacteria have additional features like flagella to help them
move, protective slime capsules, etc.
Bacteria also come in a variety of different shapes, arrangements and
sizes.
Bacterial cells are usually between 1 and 10 µm long, whereas
eukaryotic cells are between 10 and 100 µm long.

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Bacterial cells are sometimes found singly, two cells are stuck together,
and the cells exist in chain. Bacterial cells come in three main shapes:
1. Cocci (singular, coccus) – spherical bacteria
2. Bacilli (singular, bacillus) – rod-shaped bacteria
3. Spirochaetes – spiral or corkscrew-shaped bacteria
The other way of classifying bacteria is based on their response to
Gram stain.
It is a test for classifying bacteria and named after Hans Christian
Gram, who developed the technique in 1884.
Because it produces different results with different types of bacteria,
it is called a differential
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Gram-negative bacteria and Gram-positive bacteria

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 The ecology and uses of bacteria
Whilst some bacteria cause disease, many are harmless and some
are actively useful to people. Bacteria are found in every ecosystem.
In fact, you contain millions of bacteria, which live both on your
skin and inside your body. Most of these are found in the large
intestine.
Bacteria are important because they:
1. Cause diseases
2. are used in many industrial processes
3. recycle mineral elements such as carbon, nitrogen and sulphur
through ecosystems.
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 Koch’s postulates
 It is a sequence of experimental steps that describes the germ theory
of disease and involves:
 The micro-organism must always be present when the disease is
present, and should not be present if the disease is not present.
1. The micro-organism can be isolated from an infected person and
then grown in culture.
2. Introducing such cultured micro-organisms into a healthy host
should result in the disease developing.
3. It should then be possible to isolate the micro-organism from this
newly diseased host
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 The germ theory of disease

­The theory that disease can be caused by micro-organisms is called

the germ theory. Organisms that cause disease are called

pathogens. Infectious disease is caused by a living organism

entering or infecting another living organism.

Reservoir of infection is any person, animal, plant, soil or substance

in which an infectious agent normally lives and multiplies without

showing symptoms of a disease.

People acting as the reservoir of infection are sometimes called

carriers
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 The main methods of disease transmission

A. Droplet infection: diseases affecting the airways of the lungs.

They are inhaled by other people coughs or sneezes.
B. Drinking contaminated water: They infect regions of the gut.
C. Eating contaminated food: initially infect a region of the gut.
D. Direct contact: Many skin infections, such as athlete’s foot.
E. Sexual intercourse: passed through sexual intercourse.
F. Blood-to blood contact: Many of the sexually transmitted
diseases can also be transmitted by blood-to-blood contact.
G. Animal vectors:- Many diseases are spread through the bites of
insects. Mosquitoes spread malaria and tsetse flies spread sleeping
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sickness
 Other types of disease
­The WHO’s definition of health is a ‘state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being’. Diseases can be categorised into:
1. Infectious diseases caused by the entry of some organism into the
body.
2. Human induced diseases are diseases that arise as a result of a
person’s lifestyle (heart disease).
3. Degenerative diseases often result from the ageing process. E.g.
arthritis.
4. Genetic diseases are diseases that result from the action of mutated
genes. E.g. haemophilia
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5. De­ficiency diseases are diseases that result from a lack of a
nutrient in our diet. E.g. scurvy
6. Social diseases are conditions that result from social activities.
E.g. alcoholism
7. Multifactorial describes a condition that is affected by the
interaction of many factors. It does not fit neatly into any one
category. E.g. atherosclerosis
8. Functional disease is ‘malfunction’ of an organ or system,
without there being any obvious damage or physical sign of
disease in the organ. E.g. heart disease.
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 The nitrogen cycle
 ­The element nitrogen is found in many important organic molecules
in all living organisms include: proteins, DNA, RNA, ATP etc.
A. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium): Nitrogen gas is fixed into
forms other organisms can use (e.g. ammonium).
B. Ammonifying bacteria (decomposers): The decomposers break
down proteins in dead organisms and animal waste releasing
ammonium ions, which can be converted to nitrates.
C. Nitrifying bacteria: Nitrification is a two-step process. Ammonia
or ammonium ions are oxidised first to nitrites (Nitrosomonas) and
then to nitrates (Nitrobacter) which is the form most usable by
plants.
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 The sulphur cycle
 Sulphur is found in fewer types of organic molecule than nitrogen,
but it is found in many proteins. Important processes include:
 Decomposition: Sulphur is released from proteins of dead matter as
hydrogen sulphide by anaerobic Desulphovibrio.
 Oxidation of hydrogen sulphide: Hydrogen sulphide is oxidised to
release sulphur by anaerobic photosynthetic sulphur bacteria.
 Oxidation of sulphur: Sulphur is oxidised to sulphate ions by
aerobic non-photosynthetic sulphur bacteria.

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 The use of bacteria in industrial processes
1. Food and beverage fermentation
 Many micro-organisms are very useful to us and are used in making
foods, such as bread, injera, ergoo (yoghurt) and ayib, and in
producing alcoholic drinks, such as beer, wine and tej and as well as
many other products.
2. Production of vinegar
 Vinegar is a dilute solution of ethanoic acid (acetic acid) in water.

 It also contains other substances that give the vinegar its flavour.
Vinegar is produced by fermenting beer, wine or cider for a second
time.
 A culture of a special bacterium called Acetobacter is used.
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 3. Producing antibiotics
 ­Antibiotic is a drug that kills bacteria.

 The first antibiotics came from fungi.

 Today, they are increasingly being made using genetically modified

bacteria in huge fermenters.
4. Sewage treatment
 All types of sewage treatment rely on the action of a range of
microorganisms to oxidise the organic matter present in sewage. ­
 There are two main methods: the percolating filter method and the
activated sludge method
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 A. In the percolating filter method:

 sewage is screened and allowed to stand in settlement tanks

 it is then allowed to trickle through a bed of stones, each of which is

covered in a layer of micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi and protozoa)
II. In the activated sludge method:
 sewage is screened and allowed to stand in settlement tanks

 it is then pumped into treatment tanks, where:

 activated sludge, rich in micro-organisms, is added

 oxygen is blown through the mixture

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 Genetically modified bacteria (transgenic bacteria)

 Genetic engineering is the practice of transferring genes from one

organism to another organism
 Vector is a means of transferring something.

 In genetic engineering, viruses and plasmids are used as vectors to

transfer genetic information between different organisms
 Bacteria can be genetically modified by transferring a gene from
another organism; the newly formed transgenic bacterium is then
able to carry out the process specified by its new gene.
 The development of three main techniques made genetic
engineering possible.
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 The discovery that genes can be ‘cut’ out of a DNA molecule using
enzymes called restriction endonucleases.
 Th­e discovery that genes can be inserted (‘tied’) into another DNA
molecule using a ligase enzyme.
 Genes can be transferred into other cells using vectors. ­These are
usually either plasmids (small pieces of circular DNA found in
bacteria), or viruses.
 Genetically modified or transgenic bacteria can produce insulin,
human growth hormone, antibiotics, enzymes for washing powders,
human vaccines, such as the vaccine against hepatitis B, etc.
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 Genetic engineering of plants
 Genetic engineering of plants posed problems for biologists, as
plant cells will not accept plasmids in the same way as bacterial
cells do.
 However, they discovered that one particular bacterium, called
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, regularly infects plant cells.
 This bacterium can act as a vector to carry genes that have been
inserted into a genetically modified Agrobacterium into plants.
 However, Agrobacterium can’t be used to genetically modify all
types of plant.
 It will not infect cereals such as maize.
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the gene gun. ­is literally
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 Viruses
 ­The particle of a virus is called a virion.
 It contains at least two components: a protein shell or capsid and
DNA or RNA as the genetic material.
 Some also have: a membrane made from lipids and proteins
outside the capsid and other proteins and enzymes inside the capsid.
 Viruses are much smaller than even the smallest bacterium. Most
are between 0.01 and 0.1 µm in length or diameter.
 Nucleus and other cell organelles are absent.
 Because they do not have the major organelles that are present in
living cells, virus particles can’t carry out any of the normal
metabolic
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 Classification of viruses
 They can be classified into three main groups, based on the nature
of their genetic material and the way in which it is expressed.
A. DNA viruses – contain genetic information stored in the form of
DNA. For example, Herpes simplex (causes cold sores)
B. RNA viruses – contain genetic information stored in the form of
RNA. For example, H1N1 virus (causes swine flu)
C. Retroviruses – contain RNA, but replicate in a different way.
When they infect cells, they release into the cells their RNA and an
enzyme that causes it to be ‘reverse-transcribed’ into DNA. For
example, HIV (causes AIDS)
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DNA is quite a stable molecule, is not very reactive with other
molecules, and replicates very accurately.
In contrast, RNA is quite unstable and makes frequent mistakes
during copying.
 Unstable nature of RNA allows RNA viruses to evolve far more
rapidly than DNA viruses, frequently changing their surface
structure. Viruses can also be classified by the type of organism
they infect: animal-infecting viruses, plant-infecting viruses and
bacteria-infecting viruses – these are called bacteriophages
(look rather like a lunar landing module)
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 Virus multiplication
 There are three different life cycles in viruses:

1. Lytic life cycle causes the rupture (lysis) of the host cell. It causes
the cell to burst and release the viruses all at once.
2. Lysogenic life cycle infection causes the virus to enter a latent
state where its DNA is reproduced with the host DNA.
Each time the cell divides, the DNA is replicated, and each daughter
cell gets a copy of the cell’s DNA, which now includes the virus
DNA. No new viruses are formed.

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 Chronic release life cycle infection causes viruses to be released
without killing the host cell.
 A few at a time are released by exocytosis through the plasma
membrane
Modes of virus transmission
 Different viruses enter cells in different ways.

 The bacteriophage injects just its DNA; the rest of the virus remains
outside the cell.
 Many (but not all) animal viruses manage to get the whole virus
inside the cell.
 Th­ is is done by using
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 HIV and AIDS

 HIV is the causative agent of AIDS

 It has RNA as its genetic material/ retroviruses/.

 This is transcribed to DNA by the enzyme reverse transcriptase.

 HIV targets cells that form the immune system.

 Its main target is a type of cell called a CD4 T-lymphocyte. ­

 These cells are also called T-helper cells,

 Lymph is fluid containing white blood cell (WBC) which flows

through the lymphatic system.
 Lymphocytes are WBCs forming antibodies against microbes.

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 There are two main types of WBC in the immune system.

 T-cells bind to the antigens on the invading micro-organism and

destroy it.
 B-cells make antibodies which bind to the antigen and destroy it.

 HIV has spikes on its surface, the heads of which are made from
the glycoprotein known as gp120.
 Th­is binds with CD4, a protein that protrudes from various types of
human cell.
 Besides the T-helper cells, there are other types of cell that carry
CD4 on their surface – such as macrophages and some natural
killer cells.
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 How does HIV reproduce and cause AIDS?
 It fuses with the plasma membrane and then releases its RNA and
reverse transcriptase enzyme into the cell.
 Th­e reverse transcriptase converts the RNA into DNA.
 Th­e viral DNA becomes incorporated into the cell’s own DNA.
 The viral DNA is transcribed to viral RNA, which starts producing
viral proteins, including the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
 The RNA, proteins and reverse transcriptase molecules are
assembled by the cell into new HIV particles that escape by
budding from the cell membrane – this is an example of chronic
release.
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 Treatment of AIDS
 There is no cure for AIDS and, as yet, no vaccine to give immunity
against infection.
 AIDS is often best treated by HAART in which several anti-
retroviral drugs are combined to target different stages of the HIV
infection process.
 The social and economic impact of AIDS

 Shame and fear of being isolated (or putting the family under
pressure).
 Many affected families find themselves in a vicious circle:

 an increasing amount of money is needed for medical treatment.

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 The immune system
 Immune system is the system in the body which protects you
against invading microorganisms and foreign proteins.
 Antigens are proteins found on the outer surface of all cells or
pathogens.
 When a pathogen gets into the body the antigens on the surface
stimulate a response by the immune system, and the WBCs
(lymphocytes) produce antibodies to disable the pathogen.
 Other WBCs (the phagocytes) then engulf and digest the disabled
pathogens.
 Immune is protected from disease by the body having fought it off
successfully previously.
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 Control of micro-organisms
 Sterilisation is the process of killing micro-organisms on an object
by making it safe to handle without fear of contamination. These
include the use of:- temperatures, disinfectants and antiseptics.
A. Using of heat to control micro-organisms

1. Boiling is the simplest and best known method of sterilising

thing, using heat. It does not kill all microorganisms.
2. The autoclave is used at 15 pounds per square inch of pressure,
which raises the boiling point of water to 121 °C from 15–45
minutes of ‘cooking’.
This temperature is enough to kill all micro-organisms.
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3. Ultra high temperature (UHT) is a way of treating food with
intense heat to kill all the micro-organisms on it. The temperatures
used range from around 135 °C to 150 °C for 2–6 seconds.
4. Pasteurisation is not a method of sterilisation, because it does not
kill all the micro-organisms in the food.
 The food is heated to either 71.6 °C for at least 15 seconds or 62.9
°C for 30 minutes.
3. Dry heat, over a long time, kills all micro-organisms. Special
ovens used in microbiology use temperatures of 171 °C for an
hour, or 160 °C for two hours, etc.
Incineration is burning
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substances at high temperatures in the air.
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B. A chemical approach to controlling micro-organisms

 A disinfectant is a chemical agent that is applied to an inanimate object to

kill micro-organisms.
 Disinfection means reducing the number of living micro-organisms present in

a sample.
 Antiseptics are chemical agents that are applied to living tissue to kill micro-

organisms.
 Antibiotics are chemicals which kill bacteria but do not damage human cells.

 Penicillin was the first antibiotic to be discovered, and it is still in use today.

 Antibiotics have no effect on diseases caused by viruses.

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 Acquired immunity
A. Naturally acquired active immunity: Occurs in response to the
exposure of antigens during the course of daily life.
B. Naturally acquired passive immunity: The natural transfer of
antibodies from mother to her unborn baby (fetus) via the placenta.
C. Artificially acquired active immunity: It is use of inactivated
microorganisms or antigens to elicit a specific antibody response.
Vaccines allow you to be protected from a disease without
experiencing the serious effects of that illness. polio, tetanus
D. Artificially acquired passive immunity: It is the introduction of
antibodies into the body. These antibodies come from an animal or
person who is already
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 Diseases
 Many diseases are caused by bacteria, viruses and fungi.
 Parasites are organisms that live on or in another and take their
nourishment from it.
 Tapeworm (Cestoda): They are flatworms. They do not feed off
their host, but rather rob them of their digested food. They do not
have a digestive system so they have to absorb nutrients directly
across their skin (cuticle).
 Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial disease usually affecting the lungs,
it is known as pulmonary TB.
 The causative agent is the bacterium called Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
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 The role of vectors in disease
 A vector is an organism that transmits disease-forming micro-
organisms from one host to another. A housefly is a good example.
 Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by single-celled
protozoa called Plasmodium parasites.
 Plasmodium spends part of its life cycle in a mosquito and part in
the human body.
 Malaria is spread by the bite of an infected female vector
Anopheles mosquito.

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 Acute watery diarrhea

 Acute watery diarrhea (AWD) is also known as gastroenteritis

can be caused by viruses, bacteria and protoctists.
 Cholera is caused by bacteria called Vibrio cholerae.
 Typhoid fever caused by Salmonella typhi.

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 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are infectious diseases that
are spread through sexual contact. They were previously known as
venereal diseases (VD).
 Gonorrhoea is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
 It is spread through sexual contact, whether this is vaginal, anal or
oral sex.
 Syphilis is a bacterial infection, caused by the spiral-shaped
Treponema pallidum.
 Chancroid is a bacterial sexually transmitted infection. It is caused
by the bacterium Haemophilus ducreyi.
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Modern and traditional medicines

 Both modern and traditional medicines can be very useful in

relieving symptoms and curing diseases.

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