Introduction to Research

Design
19 March 2016
(MPSW5013/PPSW6013)
Research Design
 Research approach & research design are two
terms that are frequently used interchangeably;
however research design is a broader plan to
conduct a study, & research approach is an
important element of the research design, which
governs it.
 A research design is the framework or guide
used for the planning, implementation,
&analysis of a study.
 It is a systematic plan of what is to be done, how
it will be done, & how the data will be analyzed
 RESEARCH DESIGN OF A
STUDY

framework

planning implement analysis

ation
Research Design
 Research design basically provides an outline
of how the research will be carried out & the
methods that will be used.
 It includes the descriptions of the research

approaches, dependent & independent

variables, sampling design, & planning format
for data collection, analysis &presentation
Research Design
 The research design is the master plan specifying the
methods & procedures for collecting & analyzing the
needed information in a research study.
 Research design can be defined as a blue print to conduct
a research study, which involves the description of
research approach, study setting, sampling size, sampling
technique, tools & method of data collection & analysis to
answer a specific research questions or for testing research
hypothesis.
 Research design is a plan of how, when & where data are to
be collected & analyzed.
 Research design is the researcher’s overall plan for
answering the research questions or testing the research
hypothesis
RESEARCH DESIGN
 It involves the description of the plan to
investigate the phenomenon under study in a
structured(quantitative), unstructured
(qualitative) or a combination of the two
methods (quantitative-qualitative integrated
approach).
 Therefore, the approach helps to decide

about the presence or absence as well as

manipulation & control over variables.
RESEARCH DESIGN
 It also helps to identify the presence or
absence of &comparison between groups.
 The approach of research study depends on

several factors, but primarily on the nature of

phenomenon under study.
 At this stage of the research study, the

conceptual framework may or may not be

incorporated
RESEARCH DESIGN
 Research design also provides the researcher
with directions about population, sample &
sampling technique, which will be used for
there search study.
 For example, in an ethnographic qualitative

research design, a researcher gets the

directive that the population will be a specific
cultural group & the study will include a small
sample selected through a nonprobability
sampling technique
RESEARCH DESIGN
 Time (specifying days, months, & years of
study), location (study setting) & the sources
of the requisite data are the other important
constituents essential to ensure effective
planning to conduct a research study.
RESEARCH DESIGN
 This element of research design involves the
description of different tools & methods of
data collection, for example, questionnaires,
interview, direct observation or any other
methods that suit the particular approach of
the research as well as nature of the
phenomenon understudy.
RESEARCH DESIGN
 A research design must also include the
description of the methods of data analysis -
either quantitative or qualitative data analysis
techniques – that helps the researcher to
collect the relevant data, which later can be
analysed as per the research design plan.
 Without a formal plan of data analysis a

researcher may collect irrelevant data, which

can later become difficult to analyse.
RESEARCH DESIGN
 Research designs are plans & the procedures
for research that span the decisions from
broad assumptions to detailed methods of
data collection & analysis.
 In order to meet the aims & objectives of a

study, researchers must select the most

appropriate design.
RESEARCH DESIGN
 The selection of a research design largely
depends on the nature of the research
problem, the resources available(cost, time,
expertise of the researcher), accessibility of
subjects, & research ethics.
 However, the main factors which affect the

selection of research design are as follow:

Nature of the research problem:
 This is the most important factor, which helps
the researcher to decide about the selection
of a research design. Based on the nature of
research problem or phenomenon,
researchers decide whether it should be
investigated through an experimental, quasi-
experimental, or nonexperimental approach.
Purpose of the study:
 Study may be conducted for the purpose of
prediction, description, exploration, or
correlation of the research variable.
Therefore, the purpose of the research study
helps the researcher to choose a suitable
research design
Researcher’s knowledge &
experience:
 Selection of research design is largely
influenced by the researcher’s knowledge &
experience, because they avoid using those
designs wherein they lack confidence,
relevant knowledge, or experience.
Researcher’s interest & motivation:
 Interest &motivation levels help researchers
decide about the particular research
design(s). Motivated researchers always
analyze most aspects of research design
before selecting one or a combination, while
casual & callous researchers may choose
research design(s) that may lead to failure.
Research ethics & principle:
 The incorporation & application of ethical & legal
principles in the research design are essential. This
includes moral obligations such as respect for
participants & their rights, informed consent, &
protection from harm, including any adverse effects to
educational progress, health & well-being. Selection
of a research design is significantly influenced by the
ethics of the research study. For example, a
researcher may be willing to conduct a research study
through a certain experimental approach, but
problems of ethical approval may stop the researcher
to do so & he or she may have to settle for another
available possible research.
Subjects/participants:
 The number & availability of study subjects
may influence the selection of research
design. If only few subjects are involved, an
in-depth qualitative researcher may opt for
qualitative research design.
Resources:
 None of the researcher can conduct without
resources such as money, equipment,
facilities, & support from colleagues.
However, some of the studies require more
amounts of resources as compared to others.
Therefore, the selection of a research design
may be affected by the availability of
resources for the research study.
Time
 Time is also a major deciding factors for the
selection of research design. For example, a
researcher needs more time to conduct
longitudinal studies, while cross-sectional
studies may be conducted in shorter time.
Therefore, time is also a significant
contributing factor in selection of a research
design.
Users of the study findings:
 A research design also have various methods
of data collection & data analysis. Therefore,
while choosing a research design, researcher
must ensure that research design is as
appropriate for the users of the study
findings as possible, so that maximum
advantage of the results can be obtained.
Possible control on extraneous
variables
 An efficient design can maximize result, decrease
errors, & control pre-existing or impaired
conditions that may affect the outcome of the
study. The maximized efforts of the researcher
should maximize control. Therefore, possible
control over the extraneous variables may affect
the selection of a research design. For example, a
researcher wants to conduct a study through true-
experimental design but because of inability to
control selected extraneous variables, other similar
design has to be opted for, such as quasi-
experimental or pre-experimental research design.
credibility &dependability of the
research results
 There are two important criteria for
evaluating the credibility &dependability of
the research results:
 Internal validity
 External validity
credibility &dependability of the
research results
 It validates whether the independent variables
actually made a difference.
 Campbell & Stanley (1963) used the term internal
validity to refer to the extent to which it is possible
to make an inference that the independent variable
is truly influencing the dependent variable.
 In the internal validity, the independent variable is
responsible for variation in dependent variable.
 Internal validity demands a tighter control over
study to maximize the effectiveness of the results.
credibility &dependability of the
research results
 Internal validity is helpful in making the inference that
the independent variable influences the dependent
variable.
 According to Campell & Stanley (1966), six major
extraneous variables have been identified which can
jeopardize the internal validity. They are known as
threats to the internal validity are as follows:
 History
 Maturation of subjects
 Testing
 Instrumentation changes
 Mortality
 Selection bias
threats to the internal validity
 The threat of history occurs when some event beside the
experimental treatment occurs during the course of study, & this
events even influences dependent variables.
 For example, you are conducting a health teaching programme on
the importance of breast self examination (BSE), while recently a
famous film actress is diagnosed to be suffering from breast
cancer.
 It catches media attention. Medical experts are interviewed , & the
importance of BSE is supported.
 All major television channels & newspapers starts reporting on the
importance of BSE.
 While you find that the BSE activity has improved, you as a
researchers may not be able to conclude if the change in behavior is
the result of your teaching programme or it is a result of the
diagnosis of the affliction of the movie actress & the subsequent
media coverage.
threats to the internal validity
 When experimental research is carried on for along
period of time over a group of subjects, there may
be changes in the subjects indifferent ways, like in
children there is increase in height, weight, etc.
 So maturation is a threat to internal validity.
 For example, a researcher is interested in assessing
the effect of particular nutritional protocol on the
weight & height of the malnourished children.
 If this experiment is conducted for vary long period,
it is difficult to make out whether the effect on
weight & height is due to maturation or nutritional
protocol.
threats to the internal validity
 It refers to the effect of taking a pretest of
subjects’ performance post-test.
 The effect of taking a pretest may sensitize

an individual & improve the score of the

post-test.
 Individuals generally score higher when they

take test a second time regardless of the

treatment.
threats to the internal validity
 Another threat related to measurement is that of
instrumentation.
 This bias reflects changes in measuring
instruments or methods of measurements
between two points of data collection.
 Instruments like thermometer,
sphygmomanometer, weighing scale, tape
measure, etc. should be checked for their
accuracy at regular intervals, & same instruments
should be used throughout the study to minimize
the instrument-related error of the internal
validity.
threats to the internal validity
 Mortality is the loss or dropout of study
subjects during the course of study.
 If the subjects who remain in the study or join

later are not similar to those who dropped

out, the results could be affected.
 For example, a researcher conducting a

longitudinal study wherein a subject who

participated in first round of the data
collection may not be available for the second
or other rounds of data collection.
threats to the internal validity
 If the subjects are not selected randomly for
participation in groups, then there is a possibility
that the groups which will be compared may not
be equivalent.
 The effect on the dependent variable may be due
to some other factors.
 For example, if two different classes are used to
test the effects of two types of lecture methods or
if subjects are selected in a non random way, the
effect on the dependent variables could be
because of other heterogeneous factors rather
than the types of lecture methods.
threats to the internal validity
 It refers to the extent to which the results can be
generalized to a large population.
 External validity researches under what conditions
& in which type of subjects the same results can
be expected to be replicated, or whether the same
intervention will work in another setting & with
different subjects.
 External validity explores the generalization
beyond specific experiment, to check if the results
& findings come out to be same with other
settings, or with other subjects population, but
related variables.
external validity
 The factors that may affect external validity
are:
 Hawthorne effect
 Experimental effect
 Reactive effect of pretest
 Novelty effect
 People
 Place
 Time
external validity
 Subjects may behave in a particular manner
because they are aware that they are being
observed & this is called the Hawthorne
Effect.
 Subjects have the knowledge that they are

involved in research study, thus affecting the

result.
external validity
 Experimental effect is a threat to study
results when researcher’s characteristics,
mannerisms, or behavior may influence
subject behavior.
 Examples of researcher’s characteristics or

behavior are facial expressions, clothes, age,

gender, body built, etc.
 Thus, the way researcher dresses up or his or

her gender can influence the way in which

respondents answer research questions
external validity
 The reactive effect of the pretest occurs when subjects
have been sensitized to the treatment because of taking
a pretest.
 People might not respond to the treatment in the manner
they finally do if they had not received the pretest.
 For example, a researcher wants to conduct a study to
assess the effect of a health education programme on the
awareness of HIV/AIDS among people.
 In this instance, researcher conducts a pretest to collect
baseline data before health education.
 This pretest may sensitize the subjects to learn about the
HIV/AIDS irrespective of health education is provided or
not to the subject.
external validity
 When a treatment is new, subjects
&researcher might behave in different ways.
They may be enthusiastic about new methods
of doing things. Once treatment is more
familiar & as the novelty wears off, results
might different
external validity
 For example people of a specific race such as
whites have high prevalence of coronary
artery disease compared to the blacks.
 Therefore, a generalization made for whites

will not be applicable for blacks. Hence, this

is threat to external validity.
external validity
 For example the people living in high
altitudes have high hemoglobin (Hb) levels
because at higher altitudes the requirement
of oxygen is more, due to which there is
more production of red blood cells (RBCs).
However, the Hb level of the people living on
the plains is lower in comparison, so a
generalization for people of hilly areas is not
applicable for people living on plains.
external validity
 If a research was carried out on a community
in 1990 & then again in 2000, the results of
these two researches would be different.
Therefore, older results cannot be
generalized over periods of time as societies&
circumstances constantly change
two broad categories
 Generally research designs are classified into
two broad categories, & several subtypes
1. Quantitative research design
2. Qualitative research design
Broad Categories Types of Research
Design
 Main Features
I. Experimental research design
II. 1. True experimental design- Post-test –only control design-
Pre-test-posttest control group design- Solomon four-group
design- Factorial design- Randomized blockdesign- Crossover
design Manipulation of independent variable, in the presence
ofcontrol group,randomization
III. 2. Quasi-experimental design- Nonrandomized control group
design- Time-series design Manipulation of independent
variable, but absence of either randomization or control group.
IV. 3. Pre-experimental design- One-shot case design- One-
group pretest-post-test design Manipulation of independent
variables, but limited control over extraneous variables,no
randomization & controlgroup.
WHAT IS YOUR RESEARCH
DESIGN?
THANK YOU