At the end of this session, you should be able to;

 define genetics
 justify how Mendel arrived at his laws of inheritance
 define and use correctly the terms: homozygous, heterozygous, dominant
and recessive
 describe the basic principles of inheritance (segregation and independent
assortment)
 calculate the probability of inheritance of particular genes or traits based
on probability
 construct a pedigree from given information
 determine which mode of inheritance is most likely based on
information in a pedigree
 calculate the likelihood of a genetic event based on a pedigree

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GENETICS

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 HEREDITY TRAITS

- the passing on of traits - is a specific

from one generation to the characteristic that is
next unique
-affect the way we
look
- affects how our
bodies function
- are inherited
 SEXUAL MORPHOLOGICAL

- associated with - refers to the

being male or 4 TYPES OF structure or form
female HEREDITARY
CHARACTERS

BEHAVIORAL PHYSIOLOGICAL

- refers to external - refer to structure of

activities in response to parts, such as rolling
stimuli of tongue

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How Do We Keep Track of
Traits?

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- is a diagram that shows
the history of a trait as it - identify carriers of
is passed from one genetic disorders
generation to the next

PEDIGREE

- are useful for - indicate

genetic patterns
counseling

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 Rules For Making A Pedigree
• Females are represented by circles
• Males are represented by squares
• Mother/Father couples are connected by a line
• Offspring are shown oldest on the left to youngest on
the right
• Half-shaded circle represents a female carrier for the
trait
• Half-shaded square represents a male carrier for the
trait
• Full-shaded circle represents a female with the trait
• Full-shaded square represents a male with the trait
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9
 A PEDIGREE
PARENTS TRAIT

OFFSPRING
YOUNGEST TO OLDEST

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11
12
MENDELIAN GENETICS

Gregor Mendel

“ Father of Genetics”

Experimented the
common garden PEA
PLANT

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 True-breeding plants were the basis of Mendel’s
experiments
 Mendel had true-breeding pea plants
 True-breeding: self-pollinating plants that produce offspring identical to
themselves
Ex. Tall plant seeds only produce tall plants
 Mendel cross-pollinated the pea plants by joining male and female
reproductive cells from two different plants.

CROSS POLLINATION

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 LAW OF
INDEPENDENT LAW OF DOMINANCE
ASSORTMENT

The 3 basic
“PRINCIPLES OF
HEREDITY”

LAW OF
SEGREGATION
Genes and Dominance
• Mendel studied 7 different pea plant traits.
• Trait: specific characteristic (ex: color)
• Mendel’s traits were contrasting
• Original pair of plants is called “parent”, or simply
P
• Offspring are called F1 for “first filial”
• The offspring of crosses between parents with
different traits are called hybrids.

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 What Kinds of Traits Are There?

DOMINANT RECESSIVE

- a dominant trait is a - a recessive trait is a

trait that is always trait that is covered
expressed, or shown up or seems to
Examples: brown hair, disappear
brown eyes, right Examples: blonde
handed hair, blue eyes, left
handed

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What were F1 hybrid plants like?
- all of the offspring had the trait of only one of the parents.

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 Mendel’s Conclusions
• 1. Inheritance is determined by chemical factors that
determine traits and are passed from one generation
to the next. These chemical factors are called genes.
– Each of the traits was controlled by one gene that occurred
in contrasting forms.
– These different forms are called alleles.
• 2. Principle of Dominance: Some alleles are dominant
while others are recessive
– Dominant allele always expressed unless there are two
recessive alleles
– Example: In peas, tall is dominant while short is recessive;
yellow dominant, green recessive

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 DO RECESSIVE ALLELES DISAPPEAR?
• Mendel allowed all 7 kinds of F1 plants to produce an F2
generation by self-pollination. (In other words, he crossed
the F1 generation with itself.)

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 The F2 Cross
• Recessive traits had reappeared!
• Approximately one-fourth of F2 plants
showed trait from the recessive allele
• This happens because there is a
segregation, or separation, of alleles
during the formation of the sex cells
(gametes).

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 CONTROL IN THE EXPRESSION OF TRAITS

ALLELES - two genes that occupy the same position on homologous

chromosomes and that cover the same trait (like ‘flavors’
of a trait)

PHENOTYPE - the physical appearance of an organism (Genotype +

environment)
- is the way that we look or appear
Example: brown eyes, blonde hair,
tall

GENOTYPE - the genetic makeup of an organisms

- Example: Homozygous brown; BB = pure
brown: (both genes are the same)

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 GENES - a unit of heredity; a section of DNA sequence encoding
a single protein
- gene is a specific location on a chromosome that controls a
certain trait

Where Do Genes Come From?

• An individual needs 2 genes for each trait – one gene from
each parent.
• This gene pair is called an allele.
– One gene comes from the sperm cell (from the Father)
– One gene comes from the egg cell (from the Mother)

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 HOW ARE GENES EXPRESSED?
Traits are how our genes show and since traits are
formed from two genes, they are described by
the combination of genes that make the pair.
Traits are described as either:
– homogeneous, (pure)
– heterogeneous, (mixed)

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 Homozygous = Pure
(Homogeneous)

• Pure Dominant: the individual only has genes for the

dominant trait.
– Example: TT = a pure tall individual has only tall (T) genes.

• Pure Recessive: the individual only has genes for

the recessive trait.
– Example: tt = a pure short individual has only short (t)
genes.

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 Heterozygous = Mixed
(Heterogeneous)
A heterozygous individual has one dominant
gene and one recessive gene for a trait.
The result is the dominant gene is the one
expressed, or shown.
– Example: Tt = a heterozygote tall individual has
both tall (T) and short (t) genes but looks tall.

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 - is a way to show the possible combinations of
PUNNET SQUARE
genes that offspring of parents could have
- useful tool to do genetic crosses

FEMALE GAMETES
M
A
L
E

G
A
M
E
T
E
S

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 Using a Punnett Square
STEPS:
1. determine the genotypes of the parent organisms
2. write down your "cross" (mating)
3. draw a p-square

Parent genotypes:
TT and t t

Cross
TT  tt

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 Punnett square
4. "split" the letters of the genotype for each parent & put
them "outside" the p-square
5. determine the possible genotypes of the offspring by filling
in the p-square
6. summarize results (genotypes & phenotypes of offspring)

T T
TT  tt
Genotypes:
t Tt Tt 100% T t

Phenotypes:
t Tt Tt 100% Tall plants

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 Secret of the Punnett Square
• Key to the Punnett Square:
• Determine the gametes of each parent…
• How? By “splitting” the genotypes of each parent:

If this is your cross T T  t t

The gametes are:

T T t t
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Once you have the gametes…
T T  t t

t t

T Tt Tt

T Tt Tt

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 Shortcut for Punnett Square…
• If either parent is HOMOZYGOUS

T T  t t

t Genotypes:
100% T t
T Tt
Phenotypes:
100% Tall plants

• You only need one box!

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 Understanding the shortcut…

t t
t
T Tt Tt
= T Tt
Genotypes:
T Tt Tt 100% T t

Phenotypes:
100% Tall plants
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 If you have another cross…
• A heterozygous with a homozygous
T t  t t
You can
still use the
shortcut! t
Genotypes:
50% T t
T Tt 50 % t t

Phenotypes:
t t t 50% Tall plants
50% Dwarf plants
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 Another example: Flower color
For example, flower color:
P = purple (dominant)

p = white (recessive)

If you cross a homozygous Purple (PP) with a

homozygous white (pp):
PP  pp

Pp ALL PURPLE (Pp)

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Cross the F1 generation:
Pp  Pp

Genotypes:
P p 1 PP
2 Pp
1 pp

P PP Pp
Phenotypes:
3 Purple
p Pp pp 1 White

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Principle of Segregation:
- when gametes are formed, the pairs of hereditary factors (genes) become
separated, so that each sex cell (egg/sperm) receives only one kind of gene
• Two alleles will segregate The dominant trait is
from each other so that each represented with a capital letter,
gamete carries only a single and the recessive trait is
copy of each gene. So, each F1 represented with a lowercase
plant produces two types of letter.
gametes - those with a
dominant allele and those with
a recessive.

• T is dominant and stands for

tallness
• t is recessive and stands for
shortness
• TT and Tt combinations will
be tall
• tt combinations will be short
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 CROSS - is one way of creating variations in hybrid organisms
- usually consists two generations, the parental and the
filial generations

MONOHYBRID DIHYBRID TRIHYBRID

- a cross involving - a cross involving

one trait two traits

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TECHNIQUE

Dominant phenotype, Recessive phenotype,

unknown genotype: known genotype:
PP or Pp? pp
Predictions
If purple-flowered or If purple-flowered
parent is PP parent is Pp
Sperm Sperm
p p p p

P P
Pp Pp Pp Pp
Eggs Eggs
P p
Pp Pp pp pp

RESULTS
or
All offspring purple /2 offspring purple and
1

1
/2 offspring white
 Probability and Segregation
• For a monohybrid cross:
– 1/4 of F2 plants are
homozygous dominant (TT)
– 2/4 are heterozygous (Tt)
– 1/4 are homozygous recessive
(tt)
• Ratio of tall to short plants is
3:1
• This is the ratio Mendel found
and is still used today.

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 PROBABILITIES PREDICT
AVERAGES
• Probability can be used to predict the outcome of a
large number of events, but it cannot predict the
exact outcome of a single event.
• For just one person, there is a greater outcome that
they will have a dominant trait, but this is not
always true.
• In order to get results that reflect the Mendelian
ratio, a greater number of individuals (hundreds or
thousands) should be considered.

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 Law of Independent Assortment

Mendel’s second 2nd law

Inheritance Law

Formulated after the his 1st Principle

(LAW OF SEGREGATION)

-alleles for a trait separate when gametes are

formed
- alleles pairs randomly unite at fertilization
THE LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

 Mendel derived the law of segregation by following a single character

 The F1 offspring produced in this cross were monohybrids, individuals that

are heterozygous for one character

 A cross between such heterozygous is called a monohybrid cross

 Mendel identified his second law of inheritance by following two

characters at the same time

 Crossing two true-breeding parents differing in two characters produces

dihybrids in the F1 generation, heterozygous for both characters

 A dihybrid cross, a cross between F1 dihybrids, can determine whether

two characters are transmitted to offspring as a package or independently
 Does the segregation of one pair of alleles affect
the segregation of another pair of alleles?
• A dihybrid cross is a cross between two different genes.
• Mendel crossed RrYy x RrYy
and found that alleles
for seed shape
and color segregated
independently.
• This is called
independent assortment.
• There is a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio.
• There is a 1:2:2:1:4:1:2:2:1 genotypic ratio.

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EXPERIMENT
P Generation YYRR yyrr

Gametes YR yr

F1 Generation
YyRr

Predictions Hypothesis of Hypothesis of

dependent assortment independent assortment
Sperm
Predicted or
offspring of
1
/4 YR 1
/4 Yr 1
/4 yR 1
/4 yr
Sperm
F2 generation
1
/2 YR 1
/2 yr
1
/4 YR
YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr
1
/2 YR
YYRR YyRr
Eggs
1
/4 Yr
YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr
Eggs
1
/2 yr
YyRr yyrr 1
/4 yR
YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr
3
/4 1
/4
1
/4 yr
Phenotypic ratio 3:1 YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr

9
/16 3
/16 3
/16 1
/16
Phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1
RESULTS
315 108 101 32 Phenotypic ratio approximately 9:3:3:1
 SOLVING DIHYBRID CROSSES WITH MENDELIAN
(DOMINANT-RECESSIVE) INHERITANCE.

Pea plants can be tall (T) or short (t) and produce

purple (R) or white (r) blossoms.
a. A pure-breeding tall plant with purple flowers
(TTRR) is crossed with a pure-breeding short plant
with white flowers (ttrr). What will the offspring
look like?
 Step #1: Determine Genotypes of Step #2: Determine Genotypes of
Parents Gametes

“A pure-breeding tall plant with “A pure-breeding tall plant with purple flowers
purple flowers (TTRR) is crossed (TTRR) is crossed with a pure-breeding short
with a pure-breeding short plant plant with white flowers (ttrr).”
with white flowers (ttrr).”
 Homozygous, tall purple - TTRR
 Homozygous, tall purple - TTRR
TR TR TR TR
 Short, white - ttrr
 Short, white - ttrr

tr tr tr tr
 Step #3: PUNNETT SQUARE
The Punnett square determines the genotypes of the offspring.

Short White Flower

tr tr tr tr

TR TtRr TtRr TtRr TtRr

TR TtRr TtRr TtRr TtRr

Tall Purple
Flower

TR TtRr TtRr TtRr TtRr

TR TtRr TtRr TtRr TtRr

 Using a dihybrid cross, Mendel developed the LAW
OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT.

 The law of independent assortment states that each

pair of alleles segregates independently of each other
pair of alleles during gamete formation.

 Strictly speaking, this law applies only to genes on

different, non - homologous chromosomes or those
far apart on the same chromosome.

 Genes located near each other on the same

chromosome tend to be inherited together.
 End of slide for the
lesson
“Law of Segregation
and Law of
Independent
Assortment”
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