THE URINARY SYSTEM

THE URINARY SYSTEM

 Urinary system consists
of:
 Two kidneys
 Two Ureters
 The Bladder
 The Urethra
GENERAL FUNCTION OF THE KIDNEYS
 Kidneys are organs that:
 Filters plasma and plasma constituents from the blood –
filtrate
 Then selectively reabsorb water and useful constituents back
from the filtrate.
 Ultimately excreting excesses and plasma waste products
LOCATION OF THE KIDNEYS
 Located in the dorsal part of the abdominal cavity on
each side of the aorta and vena cava just ventral to the
first few lumbar vertebrae.

 In ruminants (filled rumen) the left kidney maybe pushed

to the right as far as the medial plane or beyond.

 Thus, much more loosely attached to the body wall than

the right kidney, and consequently the left renal artery
and vein are longer than the right vessels.
LOCATION OF THE KIDNEYS
 Kidneys are retro-peritoneal – located outside the
peritoneal cavity.

 They are however more closely attached to the

abdominal wall by fascia, vessels and peritoneum than
other organs
ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEYS
 Shape of the kidneys
 Somewhat bean-shaped in most domestic animals
 In cow the kidneys are lobulated
 Right kidney of the horse is heart shaped
ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEYS
 Medial boarder of the kidney is concave and has a
depression – renal hilus
 Atthe renal hilus – blood vessels and nerves enter
 Ureter and lymphatic vessels leave

 Expanded origin of the ureter within the kidney is called

the renal pelvis

 Renal pelvis receives urine from the connecting tubules of

the kidney.

 Cavity within the kidney containing the renal pelvis is

called the renal sinus
ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEY
 Medulla - portion of the kidney immediately
surrounding the renal pelvis.
 Itappears striated because of the radially arranged collecting
tubules.
 These tubules form the basis for the renal pyramids which
have their apices at the renal pelvis and their bases covered
by the cortex.
 In addition to the collecting tubules, the medulla also contain
the loop of henle.
ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEY
 The Cortex – located between the medulla and the thin,
connective-tissue capsule.
 Cortex has a granular appearance because of the large
number of renal corpuscles
 Proximal convuluted tubules and distal convuluted tubules
are also located in the cortex in close relation to the
glomeruli and many loops of henle
BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY TO THE
KIDNEY
BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY TO THE
KIDNEY
 Blood supply is much more extensive than the size of the
kidneys would suggest
 Two renal arteries may carry as much as 25% of total
circulating blood.

 Renal arteries enters the hilus – divide into interlobar

arteries

 Interlobar arteries pass peripherally between pyramids

towards the cortex – forming arciform or arcuate
arteries
BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY TO THE
KIDNEY
 Each arcuate artery – divide to form interlobular
arteries which give rise to afferent arterioles
 Each afferent arteriole branches to form a capillary
network called the glomerulus
 Efferent arterioles leaves each glomerulus – break up
into capillary network that surrounds the rest of the
nephron.
BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY TO THE
KIDNEY
 Arterioles leaving the glomeruli close to the medulla
send branches directly into the medulla as arteriae
rectae – these form capillary network around the
collecting tubules and loops of henle
 Arcuate veins drain blood from the cortex and medulla –
pass through the medulla as interlobar veins and enter
the renal vein.

 Lymph drains from the kidney to the renal lymph nodes.

BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY TO THE
KIDNEY
 Kidneys are supplied with sympathetic nerves from the
renal plexus, which follow the blood vessels and
terminate largely on glomerula arterioles.
 Branches of the vagus nerve may also supply the
kidneys.
 Both vasoconstrictor and vasodilator nerves are found
in the kidneys
URETERS
 Ureter – muscular tube that conveys urine from the
pelvis of the kidney to the bladder.
 Each ureter passes caudad to empty into the bladder near
its neck – area known as the trigone
 Ureter passes obliquely through the wall of the bladder –
an effective valve is formed to prevent return flow of
urine to the kidney.
URINARY BLADDER
 Urinary bladder – hollow muscular organ – varies in size
and position with the amount of urine it contains.
 Empty bladder – thick walled pear shaped structure
located on the floor of the pelvis.
 Filled bladder – as it fills with urine, the walls become
thinner and most of the bladder is displaced craniad
toward the abdominal cavity.
URINARY BLADDER
 Neck of the bladder is continuous with the urethra
caudally – muscle of the bladder wall is arranged in a
circular manner at the neck of the bladder – forming a
sphincter that controls passage of urine into the urethra.
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
 Pelvis, ureter, bladder and urethra are all lined with
transitional epithelium.
 Important in these areas where distention of the lumen is
required.
 Empty organ – lumen small – walls thick – lining
epithelial cells are piled deeply to form a many-layered
stratification.
 Distended organ – lumen enlarged – thinner walls –
transition to a much lower stratification of the lining.
URETHRA
 Pelvic urethra extends from the bladder to the ischial
arch.
 In the male it receives the ductus deferens and the ducts
from the accessory sex glands.
 The pelvic urethra continues as the penile urethra which
transfers the urine to the outside
MICTURITION
 Micturition – expulsion of urine from the bladder.
 Reflex activity, stimulated by distension of the bladder
from constant intake of urine from the ureter.
 The bladder expands to gradual inflow of urine until the
pressure becomes high enough to stimulate reflex center
in the spinal cord.
 Contraction of the bladder wall occurs by way of the
sacral parasympathetic nerves.
 Voluntary control of external sphincter surrounding the
neck of the bladder prevents reflex empting.
THE NEPHRON
 The nephron – unit of structure and function of the
kidney
 It includes:
 Glomerulus
 Glomerular capsule (bowman’s capsule)
 Proximal convoluted tubule
 Loop of henle
 Distal convoluted tubule (which is continued by the
collecting tubule)
NEPHRON
 Glomerulus – tuft of capillaries interposed on the course
of an arteriole.
 Glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule) – expanded
blind end of the tubule which is evaginated around the
glomerulus and almost entirely surround it.
 The visceral (inner) layer of the glomerular capsule
closely surrounds the capillaries.
 The parietal (outer) layer of the glomerular capsule is
continuous with the proximal convoluted tubule
NEPHRON
 The complex of glomerulus and inner and outer layer of
glomerular capsule is called a renal (malpighian)
corpuscle.
 The space between the inner and outer layers of the
glomerular capsule communicates with the lumen of the
proximal tubule.
 Renal corpuscle is the major site for filtration of fluid
from the blood.
 100 times as much blood passes through the filter as is
eventually excreted in the urine.
NEPHRON
 Blood pressure is important for effective filtration
 Blood pressure in the capillaries of the glomerulus must
remain relatively high
 Ensured by capillary being on the course of an artery rather
than between artery and vein.

 Both afferent and efferent arteriole (entering and leaving the

glomerulus respectively) have smooth muscle, constriction of
one or both can be used to regulate amount of blood entering
the glomerulus and the pressure within the glomerulus.
NEPHRON
 Blood pressure
 Afferent arteriole (as it approaches the glomerulus) is
surrounded by a cuff of myoepithelial cells that has
characteristics of smooth muscle and epithelium –
juxtaglomerular cells
 Juxtaglomerular cells – site of renin production which is
secreted in the blood when:
 Blood pressure in the afferent arterioles falls
 Na concentration of the plasma decreases

 Distal tubular osmolarity decreases

 Sympathetic nerve fibers innervating the afferent arteriole are

stimulated.
NEPHRON
 Renin
 In the blood renin acts on an alpha globulin, angiotensinogen
to produce angiotensin.
 Angiotensin acts as a vasoconstrictor to increase blood
pressure
 Angiostensin also act on the adrenal gland to secrete
aldosterone.
 Aldosterone acts on kidney to conserve sodium ions
NEPHRON
 Each human kidney has approximately one million
nephrons
 Only 25% of these function at a given time under normal
conditions
 Relative constriction of afferent and efferent arterioles
determine whether or not a specific nephron is
functioning.
NEPHRON
 Proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle and distal
convoluted tubule are supplied by capillaries from the
efferent arterioles.

 Blood in the efferent arteriole has lost 20% of its water,

and is more concentrated (higher potential osmotic
pressure) and therefore is better able to reabsorb water
from the tubules.
NEPHRON
 Proximal convoluted tubule
 Longest and most winding portion of the nephron
 Forms much of the tissue of the renal cortex
 Proximal tubule reabsorbs most of the constituents of the
glomerular filtrate that are needed by the animal body –
including 7/8 of the sodium chloride and water.
 Facilitated by the more concentrated blood.
 In addition to selective reabsorption from the glomerular
filtrate – cells of the proximal segment are able to secrete
waste products from the blood into the fluid passing through
the lumen of the tubule.
NEPHRON
 Henle’s loop
 Situated between the proximal convoluted tubule and distal
convoluted tubule
 U-shaped tube that continues from the proximal tubule close
to the glomerulus.
 Descending limb is thin – extends variable distance into the
medulla where it turns back on itself as the thick ascending
limb of the Henle’s loop.
 Thin limb – simple squamous epithelial lining
 Thick limb – cubodial epithelial lining
NEPHRON
 Henle’s loop
 Contains the most concentrated fluid, with the highest
concentration at the lowest part of the loop, close to or within
the medulla – due to countercurrent mechanism

 Distal convoluted tubule

 Shorter and less twisted than the proximal
 Extends from the termination of the ascending limb of the
Henle’s loop to the collecting tubule.
NEPHRON

 Collecting tubules
 Initialcollecting tubules – referred to as the arched tubules –
empty into the straight collecting tubules in the cortex of the
kidney.
 Straight tubules enter the medulla and unite to form papillary
ducts which empty into the pelvis of the kidney
 Lining cells move from cuboidal epithelium in the arched
tubules to columnar epithelium in the papillary ducts.
FUNCTION OF THE KIDNEY
 Excretion of many waste products of the body.
 Excretion – removal of waste products of metabolism – waste
products made by the body itself.
 Accumulation will prevent the maintenance of a steady state.
 Excretion is different from egestion and secretion.
 Egestion is removal of undigested food from the gut
(defaecation)
 Secretion – release of useful substances e.g. hormones
FUNCTION OF THE KIDNEY
 Maintenance of homeostasis – relative constant
condition of the internal environment of the body.
 Water balance
 pH
 Osmotic pressure
 Electrolyte levels
 Concentration of many plasma substances

 Control is achieved by – filtration through the

glomerulus – and re-absorption passively (osmosis and
diffusion) or actively (tubular cell transport)
FUNCTION OF THE KIDNEY
 Factors affecting the action of the kidneys include:
 Composition of the blood
 Arterial blood pressure
 Hormones
 Autonomic nervous system
ULTRAFILTRATION
 Ultrafiltration – filtration under pressure.
 Occurs in the renal capsule
 Pressure derived from blood pressure (pumping pressure or
hydrostatic pressure)

 Diameter of capillaries in the glomerulus is much less

than that of the arteriole - pressure rises
 Water and small solute molecules are squeezed out of
the capillary and into the renal capsule.
 Large molecules like protein, RBC, platelets are left
behind in the blood
ULTRAFILTRATION
 Epithelium of renal capsule
 Made up of cells highly modified for filtration – podocytes
 Fit together loosely leaving slits called slit pores or filtration
slits (25 nm wide) – filtered fluid pass through these slits.
 Filtered fluid in the capsule is called the glomerular
filtrate (GF)
 GF has chemical composition similar to that of blood
plasma – glucose, amino acids, vitamins, ions,
nitrogenous waste, hormones and water.
ULTRAFILTRATION
 Factors affecting the glomerular filtrate rate (GFR)
 Pressure of glomerular filtrate – lower than the pressure in the
blood
 Solute potential on either side of the filtration barrier ( water
moves from less negative to more negative solute potential
i.e. less concentrated to more concentrated solutions)
 Filtration rate can be increased by:
 Raising blood pressure
 Dilating afferent arterioles (vasodilation)

 Constricting efferent arterioles (vasoconstriction)

ULTRAFILTRATION
 125 cubic cm of glomerular filtrate produced per minute
in humans = 180 cubic dm/day
 1.5 cubic dm of urine is produced daily so a great deal of
reabsorption must occur.
 80% of this reabsorption occur in the proximal covoluted
tubule.
SELECTIVE REABSORPTION IN THE
PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULES
 Proximal convoluted tubules are adapted for
reabsorption:
 Large SA due to microvilli and basal channels
 Numerous mitochondria
 Closeness of blood capillaries

 80% of GF is absorbed here, including:

 Allglucose, amino acids, vitamins, hormones
 80% of sodium chloride and water
SELECTIVE REABSORPTION IN THE
PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULES
(PCT)
 Mechanism of reabsorption
 Glucose, amino acids and ions diffuse into the cells of the
PCT from the filtrate.
 They are actively transported (carrier proteins in cell surface
membranes) out of the cells into the spaces between them and
basal channels.
 Once in these spaces they enter the extremely permeable
blood capillaries by diffusion and are transported away from
the nephron.
 Constant removal of substances create a diffusion gradient –
further substances passes
SELECTIVE REABSORPTION IN THE
PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULES
 Mechanism of reabsorption
 As sodium and other ions are reabsorbed (tubular filtrate (less
negative solute potential) water leave the tubular filtrate by
osmosis.
 40-50% of urea is reabsorbed by diffusion – not needed but
harmless – remainder excreted in urine.
SELECTIVE REABSORPTION IN THE
PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULES
(PCT)
 Mechanism of reabsorption
 Small protein – removed by pinocytosis at base of microvilli
– hydrolytic enzymes from lysosomes digest proteins –
resulting amino acids are used by the tubules or passed to the
capillaries by diffusion.
 Active secretion of some substances such as creatine and urea
occur out of capillaries – they are eventually removed in the
urine.
LOOP OF HENLE
 Function
 To conserve water.
 Longer the loop of Henle, the more concentrated the urine
that could be produced.
 Useful adaptation to life on land ( beaver vs Kangaroo rat)

 Loop of Henle together with vasa recta and collecting

ducts – create and maintain osmotic gradient in medulla
(less concentrated at the cortex to more concentrated at
the tips of the pyramids).
LOOP OF HENLE
 Water leaves the nephron by osmosis in response to this
gradient – concentrating the urine in the nephron.
 Descending limb – thin wall, highly permeable to water
and most solutes
 Ascending limb – impermeable to water

 Cells in thick walled ascending limb actively reabsorb

sodium, chloride, potassium and other ions.
 Fluid in ascending limb becomes very dilute by the time
it reaches the distal convoluted tubule.
DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE (DCT)
AND COLLECTING DUCT (CD)
 In these last two regions, fine tuning of the body fluid
composition is achieved
 Roles DCT
 Fine control of precise amounts of water and salts - important
in osmoregulation
 Control of blood pH
OSMOREGULATION AND ADH
 ADH – antidiuretic hormone – allows precise control
of solute potential
 Diuresis – production of large amounts of dilute urine.
Antidiuresis is the opposite.
 ADH is antidiuretic in its effect – concentrates urine.

 ADH – peptide also known as vasopressin

 ADH – produced in the hypothalamus

OSMOREGULATION AND ADH
 When blood becomes more concentrated (solute
potential more negative)
 When too little water is consumed
 Excessive sweating has occurred
 Large amounts of salt has been eaten

 Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus detect a fall in blood

solute potential – signal is sent to posterior pituitary to
release ADH
 ADH is sent to kidney where it increases permeability of
distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct to water.
OSMOREGULATION AND ADH
 Increased permeability is achieved by increasing the
number of water channels in the membrane lining the
tubules.
 When ADH secretion is stopped the process goes into
reverse – reduction of water channels.
OSMOREGULATION AND ADH
 In the presence of ADH
 Increased water channels
 Water moves from GF into cortex and medulla by osmosis
 Water is carried away in the blood
 Volume of urine is reduced and concentrated
OSMOREGULATION AND ADH
 ADH also increases permeability of the collecting duct
to urea
 Urea diffuses out of the urine into the tissue fluid of the
medulla
 Increases the osmotic concentration
 Resulting in the removal of increased volume of water from
the descending limb
OSMOREGULATION AND ADH
 Opposite occurs with high intake of water
 Less negative solute potential of the blood
 ADH release is inhibited
 Walls of DCT and CD become impermeable to water
 Less water is reabsorbed from the filtrate
 Large volume of dilute urine is excreted.
CONTROL OF BLOOD SODIUM LEVEL
 Maintaining blood plasma level at a steady state is
controlled by aldosterone (steroid hormone)
 It also influences water absorption

 Secreted by the cortex (outer portion of adrenal gland)

 Decrease in blood sodium leads to a decrease in blood

volume because less water enters the blood by osmosis.

 Results in a decrease in blood pressure

CONTROL OF BLOOD SODIUM LEVEL
 Decrease in pressure and volume stimulates the
juxtaglomerular complex - release renin
 Renin activates angiotensin – releases aldosterone from
the adrenal cortex.
 Aldosterone acts on the DCT – stimulating sodium-
potassium pumps – more sodium is pumped out of the
filtrate in the DCT into the blood capillaries around the
DCT
 K+ moves in the opposite direction – active transport
CONTROL OF BLOOD SODIUM LEVEL
 Aldosterone also
 Stimulate sodium absorption in the gut
 Decrease loss of sodium in sweat
 Both effects assist in raising blood sodium level

 All together more water enters the blood by osmosis,

increasing its volume and hence its pressure.
CONTROL OF BLOOD PH
 Normal pH of blood plasma is 7.4 – must be kept in
narrow limits as enzymes could become denatured –
fatal
 Body produces more acids than bases – need to reduce
acidity.
 Production of carbon dioxide increases acidity –
carbonic acid (H₂CO₃)
 Carbonic acid – dissociate into hydrogen ions
and hydrogen-carbonate ions
CONTROL OF BLOOD PH
 Buffers – chemicals that resist pH changes
 Hydrogencarbonate ions can act as buffer.

 Hydrogencarbonaate and phosphate buffers help to

prevent acidity.

 If the blood begins to become too acid

 Hydrogen ions are actively transported from the blood to the
tubules of the collecting ducts.
 If source of the hydrogen ions is carbon dioxide, then
hydrogen carbonate will move from tubule to blood by
diffusion
CONTROL OF BLOOD PH
 Fall in pH also stimulates the kidney cells to produce
ammonium ions (NH₄⁺), which combines with acids
brought to the kidney – excreted as ammonium salts.
PATHOLOGY OF URINARY SYSTEM
 Nephritis – general term for inflammation of the
kidneys – all or part of the nephrons, connective tissues
or renal vessels may be affected.

 Nephrosis – non-inflammatory kidney disease

 Degeneration of tubules resulting in lowered albumin in the
blood, albumen in the urine and edema – caused by toxins
such as salts and heavy metals.

 Uremia – urine in the blood. Term used in conjunction

with kidney failure.
PATHOLOGY OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
 Urinary calculi – also called uroliths – stones in the
urinary system.

 Kidney failure
 Result in the need for kidney transplant
 Or – haemodialysis – use of artificial membrane in a kidney
machine
 Or – peritoneal dialysis – use of a natural membrane in the
patients own body – peritoneum.