CHAPTER-2

BASIC CONCEPTS OF C++

PROGRAMMING
 A SAMPLE C++ PROGRAM
OUTPUT
// my first program in C++
#include <iostream.h> Hello World!
int main ()
{
cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}

 This program includes the basic components that

every C++ program has
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 2
COMMENTS

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 3

 COMMENTS
 Comments are pieces of source code discarded from
the code by the compiler.
 They are used to insert notes or descriptions.
 C++ supports two ways to insert comments:
 // line comment
 /* block comment */
 The Line comment, discards everything from where the
double slash signs (//) is found up to the end of that
same line.
 The Block comment, discards everything between
the /* characters and the next appearance of the */
characters, with the possibility of including several lines.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 4
 Example of Comments
/* my second program in C++ with more
comments */
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
cout << "Hello World! "; // shows Hello World!
cout << “A C++ program";// shows A C++ program
return 0;
}

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 5

DATA TYPES

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 6

 DATA TYPES
 There are many different types of data.
 In the realm of numeric information, for
example, there are whole numbers and
fractional numbers.
 There are negative numbers and positive
numbers.
 And there are numbers so large, and others
so small, that they don’t even have a name.
 Then there is textual information. Names and
addresses, for instance, are stored as groups
of characters.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 7
 Data Types
 C++ offers two very broadest data types:
 numeric and
 character.
 Numeric data types are broken into two additional
categories:
 integer and
 floating-point.
 Integers are whole numbers like 12, 157, –34, and 2.
 Floating-point numbers have a decimal point, like 23.7,
189.0231, and 0.987.
 Additionally, the integer and floating point data types are
broken into even more classifications.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 8
 Integer Data Types
 Includes
 short
 unsigned short
 Int
 unsigned int
 Long
 unsigned long

data types

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 9

 Floating-Point Data Types
 Are data type that allows fractional values.
 If you are writing a program that works with dollar
amounts or precise measurements you need
floating point data types
 In C++ there are three data types that can
represent floating-point numbers.
 They are
 float
 double
 long double
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 10
 Floating-Point Data Types
 Internally, floating-point numbers are stored in a manner
similar to scientific notation.
 In scientific notation the number 47,281.97 is 4.728197x104.
 Computers typically use E notation to represent floating-
point values.
 In E notation, the number 47,281.97 would be 4.728197E4. The
part of the number before the E is the mantissa, and the part
after the E is the power of 10.
 The following table shows other numbers represented in
scientific and E notation.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 11

 Char Data Type
 A char variable (used to hold characters)
is most often one byte long.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 12

 Size of Data Types
 The size of a variable is the number of bytes of
memory it uses.
 Our computer's memory is organized in bytes.
 A byte is the minimum amount of memory that
we can manage.
 A byte can store an integer between 0 and 255
or one single character.
 But in addition, the computer can manipulate
more complex data types that come from
grouping several bytes, such as long numbers
or numbers with decimals.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 13

List of the existing fundamental data types in C++
Name Bytes* Description Range*

signed: -128 to 127

char 1 character or integer 8 bits length.
unsigned: 0 to 255

signed: -32768 to 32767

short 2 integer 16 bits length.
unsigned: 0 to 65535
signed:-2147483648 to
long 4 integer 32 bits length. 2147483647
unsigned: 0 to 4294967295
Integer. Its length traditionally
int * depends on the length of the See short, long
system's Word type, 2 (4) bytes.
float 4 floating point number. 3.4e + / - 38 (7 digits)
double precision floating point
double 8 1.7e + / - 308 (15 digits)
number.
long double precision floating point
long double 10 1.2e + / - 4932 (19 digits)
number.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 14
VARIABLES

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 15

 Variables
 You can use variables to store values and
you can perform any mathematical
operation on those variables
 This can be expressed in C++ with the
following instruction set:
 a = 5;
 b = 2;
 a = a + 1;
 result = a - b;

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 16

 Declaration of variables
 In order to use a variable in C++, we must
first declare it
 The syntax to declare a new variable is:
 data type specifier (like int, short, float...)
followed by a valid variable identifier.
 For example:
int a;
float mynumber;
// Are valid declarations of variables.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 17

 ….Declaration of variables
 You can declare all of the variables of the same
data type in the same line separating the
identifiers with commas.
 For example:
int a, b, c;
declares three variables (a, b and c) of type int ,
and has exactly the same meaning as if we had
written:
int a;
int b;
int c;

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 18

 Examples on operating with variables
Example-1
// operating with variables Output
int main () 4
{
int a, b, result; // declaring variables
// process:
a = 5;
b = 2;
a = a + 1;
result = a - b;
cout << result; // print out the result
return 0; // terminate the program
}
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 19
 Example-2
 // a C++ program with a variable
int main()
{
int number;
number = 5;
cout << "The value of number is " << "number" << endl;
cout << "The value of number is " << number << endl;
number = 7;
cout << "Now the value of number is " << number << endl;
return 0;
}
Output
The value of number is number
The value of number is 5
Now the value of number is 7
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 20
 Initialization of variables
 To make a variable to store a concrete value the
moment that it is declared, append an equal sign
followed by the value.
type identifier = initial_value ;
 For example:
int number = 5;
 Here is the other way:
int number;
number = 5; // this line is an assignment.
 The = sign is an operator that copies the value on its
right (5) into the variable named on its left (number).

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 21

CONSTANTS

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 22

 CONSTANTS
 A constant is any expression that has a
fixed value.
 You must initialize a constant when you
create it,
 and you cannot assign a new value later.
 C++ has two types of constants:
 literal and
 symbolic.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 23

 1. Literal Constants
 A literal constant is a value typed directly into
your program.
 For example
int myAge = 39;
 myAge is a variable of type int; 39 is a literal constant.
 You can't assign a value to 39, and its value can't be
changed.
 They can be divided in Integer Numbers,
Floating-Point Numbers, Characters and Strings.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 24

 Integer and Floating Point
Constants
 Values 1776, 707, -273 are numerical
constants that identify integer numbers.
 Floating Point constants express numbers with
decimals and/or exponents.
 They can include a decimal point:
 3.14159 // 3.14159
 6.02e23 // 6.02 x 1023
 1.6e-19 // 1.6 x 10-19
 3.0 // 3.0

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 25

 Characters and strings
 There also exist non-numerical constants, like:
 'z', // single character
 'p', // single character
 "Hello world", // strings of several characters
 "How do you do?". // strings of several characters
 Notice that:
 to represent a single character we enclose it between
single quotes (') and
 to express a string of more than one character we
enclose them between double quotes (").
 Notice this: x and 'x'. Here,
 x refers to variable x, whereas
 'x' refers to the character constant 'x'.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 26
 2. Symbolic Constants
 A symbolic constant is a constant that is
represented by a name.
 There are two ways to declare a symbolic
constant in C++.
 Defining Constants with #define
 E.g. #define studentsPerClass 15

 Defining Constants with const

 E.g. const unsigned short int studentsPerClass = 15;

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 27

 …Symbolic Constants
 For example:
 If your program has two integer variables named
students and classes, you could compute how many
students you have, given number of classes, if you
know there were 15 students per class:
students = classes * 15;
 In this example, 15 is a literal constant.
 If you substituted a symbolic constant for this
value:
students = classes * studentsPerClass
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 28
IDENTIFIERS

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 29

 IDENTIFIERS
 An identifier is a programmer-defined name that
represents some element of a program.
 Variable names are examples of identifiers.
 A valid identifier is a sequence of one or more
letters, digits or underscore( _ ).
 Neither spaces nor special characters can be
part of an identifier.
 Variable identifiers should always begin with a
letter and underscore( _ ).
 They cannot begin with a digit.
 They cannot match any key word of the C++
language nor your compiler's specific ones.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 30
 Legal Identifiers
 Here are some specific rules that must be
followed with all identifiers.
 The first character must be one of the letters a
through z, A through Z, or an underscore (_).
 After the first character you may use the letters a
through z or A through Z, the digits 0 through 9, or
underscores.
 Uppercase and lowercase characters are distinct.
For e.g. ItemsOrdered is not the same as
itemsordered.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 31

 ….Legal Identifiers
 The following table lists variable names
and indicates whether each is legal or
illegal in C++.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 32

 Keywords
 Some words are reserved by C++, and you may
not use them as variable names.
 Keywords used by the compiler to control your
program.
 Keywords include if, while, for, and main.
 The key words make up the “core” of the
language and have specific purposes.
 They are words that have a special meaning.
 They may only be used for their intended purpose.
 They are also known as reserved words.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 33
Key words according to the ANSI-
C++ standard

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 34

SPECIAL CHARACTERS
AND
ESCAPE SEQUENCES

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 35

 SPECIAL CHARACTERS
 There are several sets of special characters.
 The following table provides a short summary of
how they were used.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 36

 Escape Sequences
 Escape sequences are written as a backslash
character (\) followed by one or more control
characters
 They are used to control the way output is
displayed.
 They give you the ability to exercise greater control
over the way information is output by your program.
 There are many escape sequences in C++.
 The newline escape sequence (\n) is just one of
them.
 When cout encounters \n in a string, interprets it as a
special command to advance the output cursor to
the next line. Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 37
 ….Escape Sequences

 Do not confuse the backslash (\) with the forward slash (/).
 Do not put a space between the backslash and the control character.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 38

 BASIC
INPUT/OUTPUT

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 39

 BASIC INPUT/OUTPUT
 In the iostream C++ library, standard input and
output operations are supported by two data
streams:
 cin for input and
 cout for output.
 Therefore:
 cout (the standard output stream) is normally directed
to the Monitor
 and cin (the standard input stream) is normally
assigned to the Keyboard.
 By handling these two streams you can show
messages on the screen and receive input from
the keyboard.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 40
 Output (cout)
 The cout stream is used in conjunction with the overloaded
operator << (a pair of "less than" signs).
cout << "Output sentence"; // prints Output sentence on screen
cout << 120; // prints number 120 on screen
cout << x; // prints the content of variable x on screen
 When the << symbol is used this way, it is called the
stream-insertion operator,
 since it inserts the data that follows it into the stream that precedes
it.
 The information immediately to the right of the operator is
sent to cout and then displayed on the screen.
 In the examples above it inserted the constant string Output
sentence, the numerical constant 120 and the variable x into the
output stream cout.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 41

 …. Output (cout)
 To use constant strings of characters we must enclose
them between double quotes (")
 so that they can be clearly distinguished from variables.
 The output message is enclosed between double quotes (")
because it is a string of characters.
 For example, these two sentences are very different:
cout << "Hello"; // prints Hello on screen
cout << Hello; // prints the content of Hello variable
on screen
 The insertion operator (<<) may be used more than once
in a same sentence:
cout << "Hello, " << "I am " << "a C++ sentence";
this would print the message Hello, I am a C++
sentence on the screen.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 42
 Input (cin)
 Handling the standard input in C++ is done by
applying the overloaded operator of extraction
(>>) on the cin stream.
 This must be followed by the variable that will
store the data that is going to be read.
 For example:
int age;
cin >> age;
 cin can only process the input from the
keyboard once the ENTER key has been
pressed. Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 43
 …. Input (cin)
 You can also use cin to request more than one
datum input from the user:
cin >> a >> b;
is equivalent to:
cin >> a;
cin >> b;
 In both cases the user must give two data, one
for variable a and another for variable b that may
be separated by any valid blank separator :
 a space,
 a tab character or
 a newline.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 44
 Example on I/O
// i/o example
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
int i;
cout << "Please enter an integer value: ";
cin >> i;
cout << “\nThe value you entered is " << i;
cout << " and its double is " << i*2 << ".\n";
return 0;
}
OUTPUT
Please enter an integer value: 702
The value you entered is 702 and its double is 1404.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 45
OPERATORS

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 46

 Operators
 An operand is usually a piece of data, like a number.
 There are three types of operators: unary, binary, and
ternary.
 Unary operators only require a single operand.
 For example, consider the following expression: -5
 The minus sign, when used this way, is called the negation
operator.
 Binary operators work with two operands.
 The assignment operator is in this category.
 E.g. a=1
 Ternary operators require three operands.
 C++ only has one ternary operator (? – conditional operator).
 E.g. a>b ? a : b

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 47

 Operators
 C++ provides operators to operate on variables
and constants
 Operators are a set of keywords and signs..
 Includes
 Assignment operator(=)
 Arithmetic operators ( +, -, *, /, % )
 Compound assignment operators (+=, -=, *=, /=,
%=)
 Relational operators ( ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= )
 Logic operators ( !, &&, || )
 Conditional operator ( ? )
 The Increment and Decrement Operators(++, --)
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 48
 Assignment operator(=)
 It serves to assign a value to a variable.
a = 5;
assigns the integer value 5 to variable a.
 lvalue must always be a variable whereas
 rvalue can be either a constant, a variable, the result of
an operation or any combination of them.
 For e.g.
a = b;
 assigns to variable a (lvalue) the value that contains variable b
(rvalue) independently of the value that was stored in a at that
moment.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 49

 …. Assignment operator(=)
 For example, if we take this code :
int a, b; // a:? b:?
a = 10; // a:10 b:?
b = 4; // a:10 b:4
a = b; // a:4 b:4
b = 7; // a:4 b:7
will give us the result that the value contained in
a is 4 and the one contained in b is 7.
 The final modification of b has not affected a,
(right-to-left rule).

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 50

Arithmetic operators ( +, -, *, /, %)
 The following table shows the common
arithmetic operators in C++.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 51

…. Arithmetic operators ( +, -, *, /, %)
 The addition operator returns the sum of its two
operands.
 Here, the variable amount will be assigned the value 12:
amount = 4 + 8;
 The subtraction operator returns the value of its right
operand subtracted from its left operand.
 This statement will assign the value 98 to temperature:
temperature = 112 - 14;
 The multiplication operator returns the product of its
two operands.
 In the following statement, markUp is assigned the value 3:
markUp = 12 * 0.25;

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 52

…. Arithmetic operators ( +, -, *, /, %)
 The division operator returns the quotient of its
left operand divided by its right operand.
 In the next statement, points is assigned the value 5:
points = 100 / 20;
 The modulus operator, which only works with
integer operands, returns the remainder of an
integer division.
 The following statement assigns 2 to leftOver:
leftOver = 17 % 3;

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 53

 Compound assignment
operators (+=, -=, *=, /=, %=)
 The following table shows the combined assignment
operators, also known as compound operators or
arithmetic assignment operators.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 54

 ….. Compound assignment
operators (+=, -=, *=, /=, %=)
 Programs may have assignment statements of
the following form:
number = number + 1;
 On the right-hand side of the assignment operator, 1
is added to number.
 The result is then assigned to number, replacing the
value that was previously stored there.
 Effectively, this statement adds 1 to number.
 In a similar fashion, the following statement
subtracts 5 from number.
number = number – 5;
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 55
 ….. Compound assignment
operators (+=, -=, *=, /=, %=)
 Examples of statements: (Assume x = 6)

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 56

 Relational operators
( ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= )
 They allow you to compare numeric values
and determine if one is greater than, less
than, equal to, or not equal to another.
 For example,
 the greater-than operator (>) determines if a
value is greater than another.
 The equality operator (==) determines if two
values are equal.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 57

 …. Relational operators
( ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= )
 The following table lists all of C++’s
relational operators.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 58

 …. Relational operators
( ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= )
 All the relational operators are binary operators
 They use two operands.
 Here is an example of an expression using the
greater-than operator:
x>y
 This expression is called a relational expression.
 It is used to determine if x is greater than y.
 The following expression determines if x is less
than y:
x<y
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 59
 …. Relational operators
( ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= )
 Relational expressions are Boolean expressions
 which means their value can only be true or false.
 If x is greater than y,
 the expression x>y will be true, while
 the expression y==x will be false.
 The == operator determines if the operand on its left is
equal to the operand on its right.
 If both operands have the same value, the expression is true.
 Assuming that a is 4, the following expression is true:
a == 4
 But the following is false:
a == 2
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 60
 …. Relational operators
( ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= )
 The >= operator determines if the operand on its left is
greater than or equal to the operand on the right.
 Assuming that a is 4, b is 6, and c is 4, both of the following
expressions are true:
b >= a
a >= c
 But the following is false:
a >= 5
 The <= operator determines if the operand on its left is
less than or equal to the operand on its right.
 Assuming that a is 4, b is 6, and c is 4, both of the following
expressions are true:
a <= c
b <= 10
 But the following is false:
b <= a Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 61
 …. Relational operators
( ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= )
 The != operator is the not-equal operator.
 It determines if the operand on its left is not
equal to the operand on its right .
 Is the opposite of the == operator.
 As before, assuming a is 4, b is 6, and c is 4,
 both of the following expressions are true because a
is not equal to b and b is not equal to c:
a != b
b != c
 But the following expression is false because a is
equal to c:
a != c Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 62
 …. Relational operators
( ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= )
 Examples of relational expressions and their true or false
values. (Assume x is 10 and y is 7.)

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 63

 Logic operators (&&, ||, ! )
 They connect two or more relational expressions into
one or reverse the logic of an expression.
 The following table lists C++’s logical operators.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 64

 … Logic operators (&&, ||, ! )
 The && operator is known as the logical AND operator.
 It takes two expressions as operands and creates an
expression that is true only when both sub-expressions
are true.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 65

…. Logic operators (&&, ||, ! )
 The || operator is known as the logical OR operator.
 It takes two expressions as operands and creates an
expression that is true when either of the sub-
expressions are true.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 66

…. Logic operators (&&, ||, ! )
 The ! operator performs a logical NOT operation.
 It takes an operand and reverses its truth or falsehood.
 In other words, if the expression is true, the ! operator
returns false, and if the expression is false, it returns
true.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 67

…. Logic operators (&&, ||, ! )
a b a && b a || b

Examples true true true true

true false false true
false true false true
false false false false

returns false because the expression at its right (5 == 5) would

!(5 == 5)
be true.
!(6 <= 4) returns true because (6 <= 4) would be false.
!true returns false.
!false returns true.
•For example:
( (5 == 5) && (3 > 6) ) returns false ( true && false ).
( (5 == 5) || (3 > 6))Chapter
returns true ( true || false ).
2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 68
 Conditional operator ( ?: )
 This evaluates an expression and returns
a different value according to the
evaluated expression, depending on
whether it is true or false.
 Its format is:

condition ? result1 : result2

 if condition is true the expression will return
result1, if not it will return result2.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 69

 …. Conditional operator ( ? )
•Example:
7==5 ? 4 : 3 returns 3 since 7 is not equal to 5.
7==5+2 ? 4 : 3 returns 4 since 7 is equal to 5+2.
5>3 ? a : b returns a, since 5 is greater than 3.
a>b ? a : b returns the greater one, a or b.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 70

 The Increment and Decrement
Operators (++ and -- )
 They are designed just for incrementing and
decrementing variables.
 The increment operator is ++ .
 The decrement operator is - -.
 They are unary operators
 E.g. The following statement uses the ++ operator to
increment num:
num++;
 And the following statement decrements num:
num--;
 The expression num++ is pronounced “num plus plus,”
and num--is pronounced “num minus minus.”
Chapter 3: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 71
 …. The Increment and
Decrement Operators (++ and -- )
 ++ and -- are operators that add and subtract 1 from
their operands.
 To increment a value means to increase it by one, and to
decrement a value means to decrease it by one.
 Both of the following statements increment the variable
num:
num = num + 1;
num += 1;
 And num is decremented in both of the following
statements:
num = num - 1;
num -= 1;

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 72

 …. The Increment and
Decrement Operators (++ and -- )
 Increment and decrement operators are used in:
 postfix mode, where means the operator is placed
after the variable. E.g.
num ++;
num --;
 prefix mode, where the operator is placed before the
variable name. E.g.
++num;
--num;

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 73

 OPERATOR
PRECEDENCE

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 74

 Operator Precedence
 Deals about which operand is evaluated
first and which later.
 For example, in this expression:
a=5+7%2
we may doubt if it really means:
a = 5 + (7 % 2) with result 6, or
a = (5 + 7) % 2 with result 0
 The correct answer is the first of the two
expressions, with a result of 6.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 75
 … Operator Precedence
 There is an established order for all the operators which can appear in C++.
Priority Operator Description Associativity
1 ( ) [ ] -> . sizeof Left
++ -- increment/decrement
! unary NOT
2 &* Reference and Dereference (pointers) Right
(type) Type casting
+- Unary less sign
3 */% arithmetical operations Left
4 +- arithmetical operations Left
5 < <= > >= Relational operators Left
6 == != Relational operators Left
7 && || Logic operators Left
8 ?: Conditional Right
9 = += -= *= /= %= Chapter
Assignment
2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming
Right 76
 … Operator Precedence
 The following table shows some expressions
with their values.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 77

 … Operator Precedence
 Grouping with Parentheses can force some operations
to be performed before others.
 All these precedence levels can be manipulated using
parenthesis signs ( and ), as in this example:
a = 5 + 7 % 2;
might be written as:
a = 5 + (7 % 2); or
a = (5 + 7) % 2;
 For example: consider the following statement
average = (a + b + c + d) / 4;
 Here the sum of a, b, c, and d is divided by 4.
 Without the parentheses, however, d would be divided
by 4 and the result added to a, b, and c.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 78
 … Operator Precedence
 The following table shows more expressions and their
values with high- precedence operations enclosed
between parentheses.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 79

EXPRESSIONS

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 80

 EXPRESSIONS
 In algebra it is not always necessary to use an operator
for multiplication.
 C++ requires an operator for any mathematical
operation.
 The following table shows some algebraic expressions
that perform multiplication and the equivalent C++
expressions.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 81

 … EXPRESSIONS
 When converting some algebraic expressions to
C++, you may have to insert parentheses in the
algebraic expression.
 For example, look at the following expression:

 To convert this to a C++ statement, a + b

will have to be enclosed in parentheses:
x = (a + b) / c;
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 82
 … EXPRESSIONS
 The following table shows more algebraic
expressions and their C++ equivalents.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 83

PROGRAMMING
ERRORS

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 84

 PROGRAMMING ERRORS
 Debugging is the process of finding and
correcting errors in computer programs.
 Most programs you write will contain errors.
 Either they won't compile or they won't execute
properly.
 Program debugging is another form of problem
solving
 There are three types of programming errors:
 Design errors
 Syntax errors
 Run-time errors

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 85

 Design Errors
 They occur during the analysis, design, and
implementation phases.
 They occur due to:
 Choosing an incorrect method of solution for the
problem to be solved,
 Making mistakes in translating an algorithm into a
program, or
 Designing erroneous data for the program.
 Design errors are usually difficult to detect.
 Debugging them requires careful review of
problem analysis, algorithm design, translation,
and test data.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 86
 Syntax Errors
 Syntax Errors are violations of syntax rules,
 which define how the elements of a programming
language must be written.
 They occur during the implementation phase
 They are detected by the compiler during the
compilation process.
 Another name for syntax errors is compilation errors.
 If your program contains syntax errors, the
compiler issues diagnostic messages.
 Depending on how serious the violation is, the
diagnostic message may be a warning message
or an error message.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 87
 … Syntax Errors
 A warning message indicates a minor error that may
lead to a problem during program execution.
 These errors do not cause the termination of the compilation
process and may or may not be important.
 It is good practice to take warning message seriously
and eliminate their causes in the program.
 If the syntax violation is serious, the compiler produces
error messages,
 telling you about the nature of the errors and where they are in
the program.
 Because of the explicit help we get from compilers,
debugging syntax errors is relatively easy.

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 88

 Run-time Errors
 Run-time Errors are detected by the computer
while your program is being executed.
 They are caused by program instructions that
require the computer to do something illegal,
such as
 attempting to store inappropriate data or
 dividing a number by zero.
 When a run-time error is encountered, the
computer produces an error message and
terminates the program execution.
 You can use these error messages to debug
run-time errors
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 89
 Review Question
 Write C++ expressions for the following
algebraic expressions

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 90

 THANK U!
*-*-*
END OF CHAPTER-2
*-*-*

Chapter 2: Basic Concepts of C++ Programming 91