CERAMICS

• Structure and Properties of Ceramics

• Traditional Ceramics
• New Ceramics
• Glass
• Some Important Elements Related to Ceramics
• Guide to Processing Ceramics
 Ceramic Defined

An inorganic compound consisting of a metal (or

semi-metal) and one or more nonmetals
• Important examples:
– Silica - silicon dioxide (SiO2), the main ingredient in
most glass products
– Alumina - aluminum oxide (Al2O3), used in various
applications from abrasives to artificial bones
– More complex compounds such as hydrous
aluminum silicate (Al2Si2O5(OH)4), the main
ingredient in most clay products
 Properties of Ceramic Materials

• High hardness, electrical and thermal insulating,

chemical stability, and high melting temperatures
• Brittle, virtually no ductility - can cause problems in
both processing and performance of ceramic products
• Some ceramics are translucent, window glass (based on
silica) being the clearest example
 Ceramic Products
• Clay construction products - bricks, clay pipe, and
building tile
• Refractory ceramics - ceramics capable of high
temperature applications such as furnace walls,
crucibles, and molds
• Cement used in concrete - used for construction and
roads
• Whiteware products - pottery, stoneware, fine china,
porcelain, and other tableware, based on mixtures of clay
and other minerals
 Ceramic Products (continued)
• Glass - bottles, glasses, lenses, window pane, and
light bulbs
• Glass fibers - thermal insulating wool, reinforced
plastics (fiberglass), and fiber optics communications
lines
• Abrasives - aluminum oxide and silicon carbide
• Cutting tool materials - tungsten carbide, aluminum
oxide, and cubic boron nitride
 Ceramic Products (continued)

• Ceramic insulators - applications include electrical

transmission components, spark plugs, and
microelectronic chip substrates
• Magnetic ceramics – example: computer memories
• Nuclear fuels based on uranium oxide (UO2)
• Bioceramics - artificial teeth and bones
 Three Basic Categories of Ceramics
1. Traditional ceramics - clay products such as pottery
and bricks, common abrasives, and cement
2. New ceramics - more recently developed ceramics
based on oxides, carbides, etc., and generally possessing
mechanical or physical properties superior or unique
compared to traditional ceramics
3. Glasses - based primarily on silica and distinguished by
their noncrystalline structure
– In addition, glass ceramics - glasses transformed
into a largely crystalline structure by heat treatment
 Strength Properties of Ceramics

• Theoretically, the strength of ceramics should be higher

than metals because their covalent and ionic bonding
types are stronger than metallic bonding
• However, metallic bonding allows for slip, the basic
mechanism by which metals deform plastically when
subjected to high stresses
• Bonding in ceramics is more rigid and does not
permit slip under stress
• The inability to slip makes it much more difficult for
ceramics to absorb stresses
 Imperfections in Crystal
Structure of Ceramics
• Ceramics contain the same imperfections in their
crystal structure as metals - vacancies, displaced
atoms, interstitialcies, and microscopic cracks
• Internal flaws tend to concentrate stresses, especially
tensile, bending, or impact
– Hence, ceramics fail by brittle fracture much more
readily than metals
– Performance is much less predictable due to random
imperfections and processing variations
 Compressive Strength of Ceramics

• The frailties that limit the tensile strength of ceramic

materials are not nearly so operative when compressive
stresses are applied
• Ceramics are substantially stronger in compression than
in tension
• For engineering and structural applications, designers
have learned to use ceramic components so that they are
loaded in compression rather than tension or bending
Methods to Strengthen Ceramic Materials
• Make starting materials more uniform
• Decrease grain size in polycrystalline ceramic
products
• Minimize porosity
• Introduce compressive surface stresses
• Use fiber reinforcement
• Heat treat
 Physical Properties of Ceramics

• Density – in general, ceramics are lighter than metals and

heavier than polymers
• Melting temperatures - higher than for most metals
– Some ceramics decompose rather than melt
• Electrical and thermal conductivities - lower than for
metals; but the range of values is greater, so some
ceramics are insulators while others are conductors
• Thermal expansion - somewhat less than for metals, but
effects are more damaging because of brittleness
 Traditional Ceramics

Based on mineral silicates, silica, and mineral oxides

found in nature
• Primary products are fired clay (pottery, tableware,
brick, and tile), cement, and natural abrasives such as
alumina
• Products and the processes to make them date back
thousands of years
• Glass is also a silicate ceramic material and is
sometimes included among traditional ceramics
 Raw Materials for Traditional Ceramics

• Mineral silicates, such as clays of various compositions,

and silica, such as quartz, are among the most abundant
substances in nature and constitute the principal raw
materials for traditional ceramics
• Another important raw material for traditional
ceramics is alumina
• These solid crystalline compounds have been formed and
mixed in the earth’s crust over billions of years by
complex geological processes
 Clay as a Ceramic Raw Material
• Clays consist of fine particles of hydrous aluminum
silicate
– Most common clays are based on the mineral
kaolinite, (Al2Si2O5(OH)4)
• When mixed with water, clay becomes a plastic
substance that is formable and moldable
• When heated to a sufficiently elevated temperature
(firing ), clay fuses into a dense, strong material
– Thus, clay can be shaped while wet and soft, and then
fired to obtain the final hard product
 Silica as a Ceramic Raw Material

• Available naturally in various forms, most important is

quartz
– The main source of quartz is sandstone
• Low in cost; also hard and chemically stable
• Principal component in glass, and an important
ingredient in other ceramic products including
whiteware, refractories, and abrasives
 Alumina as a Ceramic Raw Material

• Bauxite - most alumina is processed from this mineral,

which is an impure mixture of hydrous aluminum oxide
and aluminum hydroxide plus similar compounds of iron
or manganese
– Bauxite is also the principal source of metallic
aluminum
• Corundum - a more pure but less common form of
Al2O3, which contains alumina in massive amounts
• Alumina ceramic is used as an abrasive in grinding
wheels and as a refractory brick in furnaces
 Traditional Ceramic Products

• Pottery and Tableware

• Brick and tile
• Refractories
• Abrasives
 New Ceramics

Ceramic materials developed synthetically over the last

several decades
• The term also refers to improvements in processing
techniques that provide greater control over structures
and properties of ceramic materials
• In general, new ceramics are based on compounds other
than variations of aluminum silicate, which form most of
the traditional ceramic materials
• New ceramics are usually simpler chemically than
traditional ceramics; for example, oxides, carbides,
nitrides, and borides
 Oxide Ceramics

• Most important oxide new ceramic is alumina

• Although also included as a traditional ceramic, alumina
is today produced synthetically from bauxite, using an
electric furnace method
• Through control of particle size and impurities,
refinements in processing methods, and blending
with small amounts of other ceramic ingredients,
strength and toughness of alumina are improved
substantially compared to its natural counterpart
• Alumina also has good hot hardness, low thermal
conductivity, and good corrosion resistance
 Products of Oxide Ceramics

• Abrasives (grinding wheel grit)

• Bioceramics (artificial bones and teeth)
• Electrical insulators and electronic components
• Refractory brick
• Cutting tool inserts
• Spark plug barrels
• Engineering components
Figure 7.1 - Alumina ceramic components
(photo courtesy of Insaco Inc.)
 Carbides
• Silicon carbide (SiC), tungsten carbide (WC), titanium
carbide (TiC), tantalum carbide (TaC), and chromium
carbide (Cr3C2)
• Although SiC is a man-made ceramic, its production
methods were developed a century ago, and it is
generally included in traditional ceramics group
• WC, TiC, and TaC are valued for their hardness and wear
resistance in cutting tools and other applications requiring
these properties
• WC, TiC, and TaC must be combined with a metallic
binder such as cobalt or nickel in order to fabricate a
useful solid product
 Nitrides

• The important nitride ceramics are silicon nitride

(Si3N4), boron nitride (BN), and titanium nitride (TiN)
• Properties: hard, brittle, high melting temperatures,
usually electrically insulating, TiN being an exception
• Applications:
– Silicon nitride: components for gas turbines, rocket
engines, and melting crucibles
– Boron nitride and titanium nitride: cutting tool
material and coatings
 Glass

• A state of matter as well as a type of ceramic

• As a state of matter, the term refers to an amorphous
(noncrystalline) structure of a solid material
– The glassy state occurs in a material when insufficient
time is allowed during cooling from the molten state
for the crystalline structure to form
• As a type of ceramic, glass is an inorganic,
nonmetallic compound (or mixture of compounds)
that cools to a rigid condition without crystallizing
 Why So Much SiO2 in Glass?

• Because SiO2 is the best glass former

– Silica is the main component in glass products,
usually comprising 50% to 75% of total chemistry
– It naturally transforms into a glassy state upon
cooling from the liquid, whereas most ceramics
crystallize upon solidification
 Other Ingredients in Glass

• Sodium oxide (Na2O), calcium oxide (CaO), aluminum

oxide (Al2O3), magnesium oxide (MgO), potassium
oxide (K2O), lead oxide (PbO), and boron oxide (B2O3)
• Functions:
– Act as flux (promoting fusion) during heating
– Increase fluidity in molten glass for processing
– Improve chemical resistance against attack by
acids, basic substances, or water
– Add color to the glass
– Alter index of refraction for optical applications
 Glass Products

• Window glass
• Containers – cups, jars, bottles
• Light bulbs
• Laboratory glassware – flasks, beakers, glass tubing
• Glass fibers – insulation, fiber optics
• Optical glasses - lenses
 Glass-Ceramics
A ceramic material produced by conversion of glass into a
polycrystalline structure through heat treatment
• Proportion of crystalline phase range = 90% to 98%,
remainder being unconverted vitreous material
• Grain size - usually between 0.1 - 1.0 μm (4 and 40 μ-
in), significantly smaller than the grain size of
conventional ceramics
– This fine crystal structure makes glass-ceramics
much stronger than the glasses from which they are
derived
• Also, due to their crystal structure, glass-ceramics are
opaque (usually grey or white) rather than clear
 Processing of Glass Ceramics
• Heating and forming operations used in glassworking
create product shape
• Product is cooled and then reheated to cause a dense
network of crystal nuclei to form throughout
– High density of nucleation sites inhibits grain
growth, leading to fine grain size
• Nucleation results from small amounts of nucleating
agents in the glass composition, such as TiO2, P2O5, and
ZrO2
• Once nucleation is started, heat treatment is continued at
a higher temperature to cause growth of crystalline phases
 Advantages of Glass-Ceramics
• Efficiency of processing in the glassy state
• Close dimensional control over final product shape
• Good mechanical and physical properties
– High strength (stronger than glass)
– Absence of porosity; low thermal expansion
– High resistance to thermal shock
• Applications:
– Cooking ware
– Heat exchangers
– Missile radomes
 Elements Related to Ceramics
• Carbon
– Two alternative forms of engineering and
commercial importance: graphite and diamond
• Silicon
• Boron
• Carbon, silicon, and boron are not ceramic materials, but
they sometimes
– Compete for applications with ceramics
– Have important applications of their own
 Graphite
Form of carbon with a high content of crystalline C in the
form of layers
• Bonding between atoms in the layers is covalent and
therefore strong, but the parallel layers are bonded to each
other by weak van der Waals forces
• This structure makes graphite anisotropic; strength and
other properties vary significantly with direction
– As a powder it is a lubricant, but in traditional solid
form it is a refractory
– When formed into graphite fibers, it is a high
strength structural material
 Diamond

Carbon with a cubic crystalline structure with covalent

bonding between atoms
– This accounts for high hardness
• Industrial applications: cutting tools and grinding wheels
for machining hard, brittle materials, or materials that are
very abrasive; also used in dressing tools to sharpen
grinding wheels that consist of other abrasives
• Industrial or synthetic diamonds date back to 1950s and
are fabricated by heating graphite to around 3000°C
(5400°F) under very high pressures
 Figure 7.2 - Synthetically produced diamond powders (photo
courtesy GE Superabrasives, General Electric Company)
 Silicon

Semi-metallic element in the same periodic table group as

carbon
• One of the most abundant elements in Earth's crust,
comprising ~ 26% by weight
• Occurs naturally only as chemical compound - in rocks,
sand, clay, and soil - either as silicon dioxide or as more
complex silicate compounds
• Properties: hard, brittle, lightweight, chemically
inactive at room temperature, and classified as a
semiconductor
 Applications and Importance of Silicon

• Greatest amounts in manufacturing are in ceramic

compounds (SiO2 in glass and silicates in clays) and
alloying elements in steel, aluminum, and copper
• Also used as a reducing agent in certain metallurgical
processes
• Of significant technological importance is pure silicon as
the base material in semiconductor manufacturing in
electronics
• The vast majority of integrated circuits produced
today are made from silicon
 Boron

Semi-metallic element in same periodic group as

aluminum
• Comprises only about 0.001% of Earth's crust by
weight, commonly occurring as minerals borax
(Na2B4O7- 10H2O) and kernite (Na2B4O7-4H2O)
• Properties: lightweight, semiconducting properties, and
very stiff (high modulus of elasticity) in fiber form
• Applications: B2O3 used in certain glasses, as a nitride
(cBN) for cutting tools, and in nearly pure form as a fiber
in polymer matrix composites
 Guide to Processing Ceramics

• Processing of ceramics can be divided into two

basic categories:
1. Molten ceramics - major category of molten
ceramics is glassworking (solidification
processes)
2. Particulate ceramics - traditional and new
ceramics (particulate processing)