DISCIPLINES AND IDEAS

IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

DOMINANT APPROACHES
AND IDEAS IN THE
SOCIAL SCIENCE
 JURGEN HABERMAS - a German
philosopher and sociologist whose work was
closely tied to a form of political philosophy
and social criticism known as Critical Theory

Three Cognitive Interests:

1. Empirical-Analytical disciplines
2. Historical-Hermeneutic disciplines
3. Empirical-Critical or Emancipatory Interests
EMPIRICAL-ANALYTICAL is associated with the
technical interest of understanding nature, forming general
laws, and making predictions.

 Micro-level approaches
 Macro-level approaches
 Interdisciplinary approaches
1.1 Micro-level Approaches
- It focuses on social interactions, why individuals and
groups interact in the way they do, and how they
interpret the meanings of their own interactions. It use
the individual as the level of analysis
- Dominant approaches under this are Rational Choice
Theory and Symbolic Interactionism.
1.2 Macro-level Approaches
- It focuses on the social structure, social institutions,
and social, political, and economic change.
- It uses the social aggregate as the level of analysis.
- Dominant approaches under this are:
Structural-functionalism and Institutionalism.
1.3 Interdisciplinary Approach
- Among all the approaches only the human-
environment system approach is designed as
interdisciplinary.
- It integrates knowledge from the social and the
natural sciences within one framework to address
environmental and social issues.
- Dominant approach under this is Human-
Environment System approach
2. Historical-hermeneutic
- In Historical-hermeneutic approaches data are generated
by understanding human meanings and not through
observation of neutral facts.
- Dominant approaches under this are Psychoanalysis and
Hermeneutic Phenomenology.
3. Empirical-critical
- The empirical-critical approach is governed by emancipatory
interest.
- Emancipatory interests are “human interests that involve
reflecting on social, cultural, and political injustice and how
and why it comes to exist and how it might be remedied.
- Dominant approaches under this are Marxism and Feminist
Theory.
 1. RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY
(RCT)
is a powerful tool in making sense of why people act or behave
in the way they do.
also known as the choice theory or rational action theory.
According to Elster “the essence of rational choice theory is
that when faced with several courses of action, people usually
do what they believe is likely to have the best overall outcome.
 An assumption of the mainstream variant of RCT is that
"individuals have all the rational capacity, time, and
emotional detachment necessary to choose the best course of
action, no matter how complex the choice".
Critiques of Rational Choice Theory
Explaining collective action - That is if individuals simply base their actions
on calculations of personal profit, why would they ever choose to do
something that will benefit others more than themselves? Rational choice
theory does address behaviors that are selfless, altruistic, or philanthropic.
Social norms - This theory does not explain why some people seem to accept
and follow social norms of behavior that lead them to act in selfless ways or
to feel a sense of obligation that overrides their self-interest.
It is too individualistic - they fail to explain and take proper account of the
existence of larger social structures. That is, there must be social structures
that cannot be reduced to the actions of individuals.
 2. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

is a sociological framework that focuses on the different

meanings attach to objects, peoples, and interactions as
well as the corresponding behaviors that reflect those
meanings and or interpretations.
THREE MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS OF SYMBOLIC
INTERACTIONISM
• George Herbert Mead
- the true founder of Symbolic Interaction Theory
- According to him, gestures are important in communication.

• Herbert Blumer
-coined the term “Symbolic Interactionism”
- brains behind the theory of symbolic interactionism
• Charles Horton Cooley
- concept of the “looking glass self”

“I am not what I think I am and I am not

what you think I am; I am what I think you think I am.”
3. STRUCTURAL
FUNCTIONALISM
is a framework for building a theory that sees society as a
complex system whose parts work together to promote
solidarity and stability.
It was developed by Talcott Parsons in the 1930s under the
influence of the works of Max Weber and Emile
Durkheim.
Émile Durkheim, another early
sociologist, applied Spencer’s theory to
explain how societies change and
survive over time. Durkheim believed
that society is a complex system of
interrelated and interdependent parts that
work together to maintain stability
(Durkheim 1893),
Herbert Spencer
- Founder of Structural Functionalism.
- Idea of Social Equilibrium
Robert Merton (1910–2003), pointed out that
social processes often have many functions.
TWO TYPES OF FUNCTION:
1. Manifest Function
are consequences or effects that are intended and recognized by any
social pattern or norms
2. Latent Function
are the consequences that are unintended or hidden
Social dysfunctions - processes that have undesirable consequences
for the operation of society.
In education, examples of dysfunction include getting bad grades,
truancy, dropping out, not graduating, and not finding suitable
employment.
• Émile Durkheim
- believed that society is a complex system of
interrelated and interdependent parts that work
together to maintain stability and that society is held
together by shared values, languages, and symbols.
- believed that individuals may make up society, but in
order to study society, sociologists have to look
beyond individuals to social facts.
- Social facts are the laws, morals, values, religious
beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the
cultural rules that govern social life (Durkheim
1895). Each of these social facts serves one or more
functions within a society.
Criticism
• One criticism of the structural-functional theory is that it can’t
adequately explain social change. Also problematic is the
somewhat circular nature of this theory; repetitive behavior
patterns are assumed to have a function, yet we profess to
know that they have a function only because they are repeated.
Furthermore, dysfunctions may continue, even though they
don’t serve a function, which seemingly contradicts the basic
premise of the theory. Many sociologists now believe that
functionalism is no longer useful as a macro-level theory, but
that it does serve a useful purpose in some mid-level.
INSTITUTIONALISM
4. INSTITUTIONALISM

concentrates attention on the authorities engaged in

public administration, analyzes history, structure,
functions, power and relationships
the theory offers an opportunity for infusing into the
empirical study of politics and the analysis of political
values
Formal Institution Informal Institution
TWO KINDS OF INSTITUTIONS
1.Formal Institutions are those officially established in one way or
another, often by the governments.
2.Informal Institutions are not officially established, but are practices
commonly accepted throughout society.
5. HUMAN – ENVIRONMENT
SYSTEM APPROACH (HES)
- refers to “the interaction of human systems with corresponding
environmental or technological systems
- It bridges the gap between, and integrates knowledge from, the
social and the natural sciences within one framework in the study of
environmental and social issues.
- It also referred to as the “COUPLED HUMAN -
ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM” or the “COUPLED HUMAN
AND NATURAL SYSTEM” (CHANS).
6. PSYCHOANALYSIS

Refers both to a theory of how the mind works and a

treatment modality.
As treatment method, it helps people understand
themselves, their relationships, and how they behave in
the world.
Began with a young physician namely SIGMUND
FREUD, the founder with his Psychoanalytic Theory.
 3 Levels of Consciousness:

1. Conscious Mind- exist outside of

our awareness at all times
2. Preconscious Mind – includes all
information that we are not currently
aware of but that can be recalled
3. Unconscious Mind – our current
state of awareness
 3 Components of Personality Structure:

1. Id – (unconscious) it is the person’s

drives and instincts, operates on
“pleasure principle”
2. Ego – (operates in preconscious in
conscious mind), the mediator that
resolves conflict between Id and
Superego.
- the reality principle
3. Superego– (exists in all level of
consciousness), the moral principle that
decides of what is right or wrong.
7. HERMENEUTIC PHENOMENOLOGY

- is concerned with the life world or human experience

as it is lived.
- Phenomenology becomes hermeneutical when its
method is taken to be interpretive (rather than purely
descriptive).
 TWO CAMPS:

• Descriptive or transcendental phenomenology

– by Edmund Husserl and was based on discovering the objective
universal essences of lived experiences and communicating them
through pure description
• Interpretive or hermeneutic phenomenology
– by Martin Heidegger and was used to interpret the meaning of
lived experiences and communicate the interpretation textually or
symbolically
MARXISM
8. MARXISM
- Marxism is a perspective that the world is full of conflict.
This perspective is from Karl Marx’s classical works.
- As a theoretical perspective, it focuses on class relations and
social conflict that promotes social inequality in the human
society.
- it is the political, economic, and social theory of Karl Marx
including the belief that the struggle between social classes is
a major force in history and that there should eventually be a
society in which there are no classes
9. FEMINIST THEORY
- aims to enhance women’s status and power
- believes that social inequality is caused by the unequal
power relations between man and woman
- Feminist theory encompasses a range of ideas, reflecting
the diversity of women worldwide.
- Feminism counters traditional philosophy with new ways
of addressing issues affecting humanity, calling for the
replacement of the presiding patriarchal order with a
system that emphasizes equal rights, justice, and fairness.
 KEYTAKEAWAYS
Rational choice theory: A perspective that assumes
individuals are rational decision-makers who weigh the
costs and benefits of different actions before making
choices.
Symbolic interactionism: A theory that emphasizes the
importance of symbols and the ways in which individuals
interact and interpret meaning through their
communication and actions.
 KEYTAKEAWAYS
Structural functionalism: A perspective that focuses on
how different parts of society work together to maintain
social order and stability, highlighting the functions and
roles of social institutions.
Institutionalism: A framework that examines the influence
and impact of formal and informal institutions on
individuals, groups, and societies, emphasizing the role of
rules, norms, and values in shaping behavior.
 KEYTAKEAWAYS
Human and environment system approach: An approach
that explores the interactions and interdependence
between humans and the natural environment, recognizing
the reciprocal relationship and impact between the two.
Psychoanalysis: A theory that explores the unconscious
mind and the role of childhood experiences, in order to
understand and explain human behavior, emotions, and
mental disorders.
 KEYTAKEAWAYS
Hermeneutic phenomenology: A methodological framework that focuses on
interpreting and understanding lived experiences through a deep exploration
of personal narratives and interpretation of the meaning behind those
experiences.

Marxism: A socio-political theory that examines social relations and class

struggle, emphasizing the influence of economic factors on social structures,
power relations, and social change.

Feminism: A theoretical perspective that aims to challenge and address

social, political, and economic inequalities related to gender, focusing on the
rights, representation, and autonomy of women and marginalized genders.
END OF PRESENTATION
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