CHAPTER -1:

INTRODUCTION TO METAL FORMING PROCESSES

1.1 Metal forming science
1.2 Basic Types of Metal Forming Processes
1.3 Material Behaviour in Metal Forming
1.4 Temperature in Metal Forming
1.5 Forming technologies and Equipment’s

1
 1.1 Metal forming science

Forming, or metal forming, is the metalworking process

of shaping metal parts and objects through mechanical
plastic deformation; the work piece is reshaped without
adding or removing material, and its mass remains
unchanged by the applied of external forces.
• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that exceed
the yield strength of the metal
• The metal therefore deforms to take a shape determined
by the geometry of the die

2
 Stresses in Metal Forming

Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually

compressive
• Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
However, some forming processes
• Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
• Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
• Still others apply shear stresses (shear spinning)

3
How metal forming process is different from other
manufacturing processes?

Metal forming vs other methods of Mfg.

Machining – cut extra material
Casting – melting of metal
Metal Forming Process
• Shape/size by deformation
• External forces
• Plastic deformation
• Bulk Deformation Process

4
 Comparison
With machining process-
• large amount of material is removed in the form
of chips
• skilled operator is required
With casting process-
• involves series of operations
• molten material wastage
• machining of component is required
Metal Forming Process
• No material loss
• No machining
• No series of operations
• No skilled operator

5
 1.2 Basic Types of Metal Forming Processes

Large group of Mfg.

processes in which Performed as Cold,
plastic deformation Warm and Hot working
is used to change the Rolling
shape of the metal
work piece Forging
Bulk
Deformation Extrusion
Wire and Bar
Metal drawing
Forming
Sheet Metal Bending
working Shearing
Mainly
Cold Working Drawing

6
 1.3 Material Behavior in Metal Forming

• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary

interest because material is plastically deformed
• In plastic region, metal's behaviour is expressed
by the flow curve:

Y f  K n

where K = strength coefficient;

and n = strain hardening
exponent
 Flow curve based on true stress
and true strain

7
 Flow Stress

 For most metals at room temperature, strength

increases when deformed due to strain hardening
 Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress
required to continue deforming the material

Y f  K n

where Yf = flow stress, i.e., the yield strength

as a function of strain

8
 Average Flow Stress

• Determined by integrating the flow curve

equation between zero and the final strain value
defining the range of interest

_ K n
Yf 
1 n

where Y f = average flow stress; and  = maximum

_

strain during deformation process. n = strain

hardening exponent

9
 1.4 Temperature in Metal Forming

 For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on

temperature
 Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are
reduced at higher temperatures
 In addition, Ductility increases and yield strength
decreases when work temperature is raised

10
 Cont.
 Any deformation operation can be accomplished
with lower forces and power at elevated
temperature
 Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
1. Cold working
2. Warm working
3. Hot working

11
 1. Cold Working

• Performed at room temperature or slightly

above
• Many cold forming processes are important
mass production operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
Advantages of Cold Forming
• Better accuracy, closer tolerances
• Better surface finish
• Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
• No heating of work required

12
 Disadvantages of Cold Forming

• Higher forces and power required in the

deformation operation
• Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of
forming that can be done
• In some cases, metal must be annealed to
allow further deformation
• In other cases, metal is simply not ductile
enough to be cold worked

13
 Impact of Cold Work

As cold work is increased

• Yield strength
(sy) increases.
• Tensile strength
(TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or
%AR) decreases.

14
 2. Warm Working

• Performed at temperatures above room

temperature but below recrystallization
temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and warm
working often expressed in terms of melting
point:
• 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point
(absolute temperature) for metal

15
 Advantages of Warm Working

• Lower forces and power than in cold working

• More intricate work geometries possible
• Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
• Low spring back
3.Hot working
• Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
• Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of
melting point on absolute scale
• In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm

16
 3. Hot working
Advantages of Hot Working
• Work part shape can be significantly altered
• Lower forces and power required
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot
formed
• Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
• No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening
Disadvantages of Hot Working
• Lower dimensional accuracy
• Higher total energy required (due to the thermal
energy to heat the work piece)
• Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish,
Shorter tool life

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 Group Discussion
1. List and define the range of metal forming
temperature
2. Define what is metal forming process
3. Define what is manufacturing process and
classification of manufacturing process
4. List and define with neatness sketch the classification
of metal forming process
5. Plot and define the hooks law stress vs strain metal
properties

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CHAPTER -2: FORGING OF METALS
2.1. Introduction to forging
2.2. Classification of forging processes
2.3. Forging equipment
2.4. Open-die forging
2.5. Closed-die forging
2.6. Forge ability of metals and Forging defects
2.7. Die materials and lubrications
2.8. Forging machines
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 2.1. Introduction to forging

• It is a deformation process in which the work piece is

compressed between two dies, using either impact
load or hydraulic load (or gradual load) to deform it.
• It is used to make a variety of high-strength
components for automotive, aerospace, and other
applications.
• The components include engine crankshafts,
connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural
components, jet engine turbine parts etc.

20
 2.2 Classification of forging operations
Category based on temperature :
– Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the significant
deformation and the need to reduce strength and increase ductility
of work metal
– Cold forging – increased strength that results from strain hardening
Category based on presses:
Forge hammer - applies an impact load
Forge press - applies gradual pressure
• Mechanical press - converts rotation of drive motor into linear
motion of ram
• Hydraulic press - hydraulic piston actuates ram
• Screw press - screw mechanism drives ram
Category based on type of forming:
1. Open‑die forging
In open die forging, the work piece is compressed between two flat platens
or dies, thus allowing the metal to flow without any restriction in the
sideward direction relative to the die surfaces. 21
 1. Open‑die forging
Deformation operation reduces height and increases diameter of work

2. Impression-die forging
Compression of work part by dies with inverse of desired part shape
• Flash extends out from the body of the forging as a thin plate at the
line where the dies meet and is subsequently removed by
trimming.

22
3. Flashless forging (precision forging)
• In flashless forging, the work piece is fully restricted within
the die and no flash is produced. The amount of initial work
piece used must be controlled accurately so that it matches
the volume of the die cavity

23
 2.3. Forging equipment

 Forging equipment's may be classified with respect to the principle of

operation. In forging hammers the forced is supplied by falling weight
or ram. these are
 2.3 Forging Tools
Forge/Furnace/Hearth : Heating furnace
Anvil :Supporting Tool
Hammers & set Hammers : Striking Tool
Tongs: Holding Tool
Chisels: Cutting Or Shaping Tool
Fullers: Grooving Tool
Swages & Swage Block: Shaping Tools
 Forging Tools

Hammers
Anvil

Tong chisel
Swage Block
 Other Forging Operations
Upset forging:
• It is a deformation operation in which a cylindrical work piece is
increased in diameter with reduction in length. In industry practice, it
is done as closed die forging.
• Upset forging is widely used in the fastener industries to form heads
on nails, bolts, and similar products.
 Other Forging Operations
Heading:
• The following figure shows variety of heading operations with
different die profiles.
 Other Forging Operations
Swaging:
• Swaging is used to reduce the diameter of a tube or a rod at the end of
the work piece to create a tapered section. In general, this process is
conducted by means of rotating dies that hammer a workpiece in
radial direction inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies. A
mandrel is required to control the shape and size of the internal
diameter of tubular parts during swaging.
 2.4Defects in forging:
Pitting: occurs on the surface of forging due to
scales.
Cold shuts or laps : Short cracks that occurs on the
corners of the surface that are at right angles to each
other
Die shift : Caused due to misalignment between to
halves of forging dies.
Dents :Caused due to careless working.
Oxidation & Decarburization : Occur due to
overheating of stock.
Fins and rags : Small projection or loose metal
driven into the forging surface
 Defects in forging
Some other common defect are
(a) Incomplete filing of dies
(b) Burnt and overheated metals
(c) Flakes: Internal breaks and rupture
(d) Incorrect size of forging
(e) Tears
(f) Blowholes
(g) Internal cracks
 Force analysis in forging
• In actual forging, the accurate force evaluation is done by using, F =
A by considering the effect of friction and D/h ratio. Here,=1+
• Where F is maximum force in the operation; A is projected area of
the part including flash, is flow stress of the material, is forging
shape factor , μ is coefficient of friction, D is work piece diameter
and h is work piece height.
• Now selecting the proper value of flow stress is difficult because the
strain varies throughout the work piece for complex shapes and
simple.
• shape factor equal to 6.0 for simple shape,
• 8.0 for complex shape and 10.0 for very complex shape.

32
 Group Discussion
1. List the defect of forging and application
2. Define hammer and press forging

33
 2.Problems

1. A part is designed to be hot forged in an impression die. The

area of the part including flash is 15.After trimming the part has a
projected area=10.Part geometry is relatively simple. As heated,
the work material yields 9000 lb/and has no tendency to strain
harden. Determine the maximum force required to perform the
forging operation.
2. A connecting rod is designed to be hot forged in an impression
die. The projected area of the part is 6500. The design of the die
will cause flash to form during forging, so the area including flash
will be 9000 . The part geometry is considered to be complex. As
heated, the work material yields at 75 MPa and has no tendency to
strain harden. Determine the maximum force required to perform
34
the forging operation.
CHAPTER -3: ROLLING OF METALS
3.1. Introduction to rolling processes
3.2. Classification of rolling processes
3.3. Rolling mills
3.4 Problems and defects in rolled products

35
 3.1. Introduction to rolling processes
• Deformation process in which work thickness is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two opposing cylindrical rolls .
• This process involves- - plastic deformation
- reduction in thickness
- increase in length & width

The Rolls:
Rotating rolls perform two main functions:
• Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between
work part and rolls
• Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross section
36
 3.2. Classification of rolling processes

1. Based on work piece geometry:

• Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a
rectangular cross section
• Shape rolling - square cross section is
formed into a shape such as an I‑beam

2. Based on work temperature :

• Hot Rolling – most common due to the
large amount of deformation required
• Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and
plate stock

37
 Flat rolling

• The rolls contact the rolling sheet along an arc defined by

angle θ. Each roll has radius R, and its has surface velocity
vr. This velocity is in between entry and exit velocity.
• However, there is one point or zone along the contact arc
where work velocity equals roll velocity. This is called the
no-slip point, or neutral point.
38
 Flat rolling

• On either side of the neutral point, slipping and friction occur

between roll and sheet. The amount of slip between the rolls
and the sheet can be quantified by forward slip, S,

is the final velocity, is the roll velocity

• In flat rolling, the work is squeezed between two rolls so that

its thickness is reduced by an amount called the draft, d

• The true strain experienced by the work in rolling is based on

before and after stock thickness, and is given by
39
 Flat rolling

True strain can be used to determine the average flow stress

applied to the work material in flat rolling, and is given by

= k εn/ 1+n

The maximum possible draft that can be accomplished in flat

rolling with a given coefficient of friction is given by

dmax = µ2R
Where, dmax= maximum draft (mm); µ = coefficient of
friction; and R = radius of roller (mm)

40
 Cont.
• The roll force (F) is calculated by,WL , wL is the contact area
• The contact length (projected) is approximated by,
• The rolling power required for two powered rolls is given by, P =
(2πN)FL (watts)

𝐿
𝐹=𝑊 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝐿
0

Typical variation in roll pressure along the contact length in flat rolling
41
 Example

A 300mm wide strip 25 mm thick is feed through a rolling mill

with two powered rolls each of radius = 250mm. The work
thickness is to be reduced to 22mm in one pass at a roll speed
of 50rpm. The work material has a flow curve defined by
K=275MPa and n=0.15, and the coefficient of friction between
the roll and the work is assumed to be 0.12. Determine if the
friction is sufficient to permit the rolling operation to be
accomplished. If so, calculate the roll force, torque and
horsepower.

42
 Solution
Draft,
Max. possible draft

Contact length =27.4mm

True strain
Average flow stress

43
3.3 Rolling Mills
Various mill configurations are available to deal with the variety of
applications and technical problems in the rolling process

Two-high rolling mill:

two rolls rotate in opposite direction .

Three-high rolling mill: two-high rolling mill

• Three-high – work passes through rolls in both
directions
• In the three-high configuration, there are three
rolls in a vertical column, and the direction of
rotation of each roll remains unchanged.

44
 Contd.
Four-high rolling mill:
• Four-high – backing rolls support smaller work rolls.
• There are advantages to be gained in reducing roll
diameter. Roll-work contact length is reduced with
a lower roll radius, and this leads to lower forces,
torque, and power
Cluster rolling mill:
• Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
• Another roll configuration that allows smaller
working rolls against the work is the cluster rolling
mill
Tandem Rolling Mill:
Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills. To achieve higher throughput
rates in standard products, a tandem rolling mill is often used.

45
 3.4 DEFECTS IN ROLLING:

1-surface defects
2-structural defects Applications
• Structural shapes or
3-wavy edges-shown in fig. (a)
sections
4-zipper crack-shown in fig.(b) • Plates and sheets
• Special purpose
5-edge cracks-shown in fig.(c)
rolled products
6-alligatoring-shown in fig.(d)

46
 Group Discussion
1. Define the neutral point on flat rolling
2. List the defect of rolling and application

47
CHAPTER -4: METALS EXTRUSION PROCESS
4.1 Introduction to extrusion
4.2 Classification of extrusion processes
4.3 Extrusion Defects
4.4 Extrusion die features

48
 4.1 Introduction to extrusion

• It is a compressive deformation process in which the

work metal is forced to flow through a die opening.
• During the flow through a die, the work metal takes
the shape of the opening as its cross-section.

49
 4.2Classification of extrusion processes

There are several ways to classify metal extrusion processes:

By direction • Direct / Forward extrusion

• Indirect / backward extrusion

By operating • Hot and cold extrusion

temperature

By Equipment • Horizontal and vertical extrusion

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Classification of extrusion process

Forward
Extrusion
Hot Extrusion
Backward
Extrusion

Extrusion
Forward Hydrostatic
extrusion extrusion
Cold Extrusion Cold extrusion
Backward forging
extrusion Impact
extrusion

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 Hot extrusion processes

• a) Direct or Forward hot extrusion: the direction of

extruded product is same as the direction of force application .
• b) In Direct or Backward hot extrusion: the direction of
extruded product is opposite to the direction of force
application .

Indirect or backward extrusion

Direct or forward extrusion 52
 Cold extrusion processes
• a) Hydrostatic extrusion: In this type of extrusion process, the
billet is surrounded by a working fluid which is pressurised by the
ram to apply the extrusion force.
• In this process, hydraulic fluid remains between the billet and the
chamber walls hence eliminating the contact between them.
• Also, it avoids the friction between the metal billet and the walls of
the chamber. the process is schematically shown in the figure.

Hydrostatic extrusion 53
 Cold extrusion processes
• b) Impact Extrusion : impact extrusion is most suitable for
producing collapsible tubes of soft materials, aluminium and
copper etc. The impact extrusion is performed using a punch and
die as shown in the figure.
• The material is placed the die and punch is struck from top with
high pressure and speed , the metal flows up and forms cup shape
over the punch which is removed from the punch using the
compressed air.

Principle of
impact extrusion

54
Extrusion ratio: Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as

• where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional area of the starting

billet; and Af = final cross-sectional area of the extruded section

4.3 Extrusion Defects

a) Centre-burst: internal crack due to excessive
tensile stress at the centre possibly because of
high die angle, low extrusion ratio.
b) Piping: sink hole at the end of billet under
direct extrusion.
c) Surface cracking: High part temperature due
to low extrusion speed and high strain rates

55
 4.4 Extrusion die features

(a)Definition of die angle in direct extrusion; (b) effect of die angle on ram force.

• Low die angle - surface area is large, which increases friction at

die‑billet interface
– Higher friction results in larger ram force
• Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow during reduction
– Turbulence increases ram force required
• Optimum angle depends on work material, billet temperature, and
lubrication 56
 4.5 Analysis of extrusion:
Ideal deformation Analysis
• occurs with no friction and no redundant work: under the
assumption of ideal deformation (no friction and no redundant
Formulae: Direct and Indirect Extrusion ratio,
True strain, 𝜀 = ln 𝑟𝑥
Wher
P= Ram force in indirect or direct extrusion
is simply pressure
Ao=origina area

Force required, F = p x 𝐴𝑜
Actual deformation Analysis

Friction exists between the die and the work as the billet squeezes
down and passes through the die opening. In direct extrusion, friction
also exists between the container wall and the billet surface.
The following empirical equation proposed by Johnson for estimating
extrusion strain (in friction condition): 57
 4.5 Analysis of extrusion:
Formulae: Extrusion ratio,
True strain, 𝜀 = ln 𝑟𝑥
Extrusion strain (Johnson equation), 𝜀𝑥= a + bln 𝑟𝑥
Average flow stress,

Ram pressure, , for indirect extrusion,

Ram pressure, for direct extrusion

Force required, F = p x 𝐴𝑜
Shape factor, = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐( )𝟐.𝟐𝟓 where, = perimeter of the
part, = perimeter of the circular part with same cross-sectional
area of the part.

58
 Example:1

A cylindrical billet that is 100 mm long and 40 mm in diameter is reduced

by indirect (backward) extrusion to a 15 mm diameter. Die angle = 90°. If the
Johnson equation has a = 0.8 and b = 1.5, and the flow curve for the work metal
has K = 750 MPa and n = 0.15, determine: (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain
(homogeneous deformation), (c) extrusion strain, (d) ram pressure,
and (e) ram force.

59
 Example:2

A billet 75mm long and 25mm in diameter is to be extruded in a direct extrusion

operation with extrusion ratio rx = 4.0. The extrude has a round cross section.
The die angle (half angle) = 90◦ the work metal has a strength coefficient = 415 MPa,
and strain- hardening exponent = 0.18. Use the Johnson formula with a = 0.8 and
b = 1.5 to estimate extrusion strain. Determine the pressure applied to the end of the
billet as the ram moves forward.
Solution:
Let us examine the ram pressure at billet lengths of L= 75mm (starting value),

60
 Example:2

L= 50 mm, L= 25 mm, and L= 0.We compute the ideal true strain, extrusion strain
using Johnson’s formula and average flow stress: L=75mm,With a die angle of 90◦,
the billet metal is assumed to be forced through the die opening almost immediately;
thus, our calculation assumes that maximum pressure is reached at the billet length
of 75mm. For die angles less than 90◦, the pressure would build to a maximum as
the starting billet is squeezed into the cone-shaped portion of the extrusion die.

L=0, Zero length is a hypothetical value in direct extrusion. In reality, it is

impossible to squeeze all of the metal through the die opening. Instead,
a portion of the billet (the‘‘butt’’) remains unextruded and the pressure begins
to increase rapidly as L approaches zero

61
 Example:3

An indirect extrusion process starts with an aluminum billet with diameter =

2.0 in and length = 3.0 in. Final cross-section after extrusion is a square with
1.0 in on a side. The die angle = 90°. The operation is performed cold and the
strength coefficient of the metal K = 26,000 lb/in2 and strain hardening
exponent n = 0.20. In the Johnson extrusion strain equation, a = 0.8 and b = 1.2.
a. Compute the extrusion ratio, true strain, and extrusion strain.
b. What is the shape factor of the product?
c. If the butt left in the container at the end of the stroke is 0.5 in thick, what is
the length of the extruded section?
d. Determine the ram pressure in the process.

62
Example:3

63
CHAPTER -5: DRAWING
5.1 Rod and wire drawing
5.2 Tube-drawing processes
5.3 Draw die details
5.4 Analysis of tube drawing

64
 5.1 Wire and bar drawing
• In this type of forming process, the diameter of a round bar (billet) is reduced
by pulling it through a die opening.
• The basic difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is the stock size
that is processed.
• Bar drawing is the term used for large diameter bar and rod stock, while wire
drawing applies to small diameter stock. Wire sizes down to 0.03 mm are
possible in wire drawing.

o  Af
ADrawing of bar, rod or wire
r
Area reduction Ao

where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao= original area of job; and Ar = final work 65
 5.2 Tube drawing

• This operation is used to reduce the diameter or wall

thickness of the seamless tubes and pipes.
• Tube drawing can be done either with or without
mandrel.
• The simplest method uses no mandrel and is used for
diameter reduction called as tube sinking.
• But inside diameter and wall thickness cannot be
controlled. So mandrel is required.

66
Tube drawing

67
 5.3 Draw die details

• Entry region - funnels lubricant into the die to

prevent scoring of work and die
• Approach - cone-shaped region where drawing
occurs
• Bearing surface - determines final stock size
• Back relief - exit zone - provided with a back
relief angle (half-angle) of about 30∘
• Die materials: tool steels or cemented carbides
68
 Continuous wire drawing

• Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple draw

dies (typically 4 to 12) separated by accumulating drums
• Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw wire
stock through upstream die
• Annealing sometimes required between dies to relieve
work hardening

69
 5.4 Analysis of Drawing:

Ideal deformation Analysis

• Mechanics of Drawing: If no friction or redundant work occurred in
drawing, true strain could be determined as follows:
True strain,
Where
P= Ram force in indirect or direct extrusion
is simply pressure
Ao=origina area

Force required, F = 𝜎 r=drawing reduction

d = draft, Do = original diameter of work, mm
(in); and Df = final work diameter, mm (in).

70
 5.4 Analysis of Drawing:
Actual Analysis
Because friction is present in drawing and the work metal experiences
inhomogeneous deformation, the actual stress is larger than provided. In
addition to the ratio Ao/Af. Other variables that influence draw stress
are die angle and coefficient of friction at the work–die interface. A
number of methods have been proposed for predicting draw stress based
on values of these parameters. We present the equation suggested by
Schey:

Where 𝜎
𝑑 = draw stress, MPa (lb/); 𝜇 = die-work coefficient of friction; 𝛼
= die angle (approach angle) (half-angle); and Ø is a factor that accounts
for inhomogeneous deformation which is determined as follows for a
round cross section:
71
 5.4 Analysis of Drawing:

Where D= average diameter of work during drawing, mm(in); and Lc =

contact length of the work with the draw die, mm(in).Values of D and Lc
can be determined from the following:

The corresponding draw force is then the area of the drawn cross section
multiplied by the draw stress:

Where F = draw force, N (lb); and the other terms are defined above. The
power required in a drawing operation is the draw force multiplied by
exit velocity of the work.
72
 Example:1

Wire is drawn through a draw die with entrance angle=15◦. Starting diameter
is 2.5 mm and final diameter =2.0 mm. The coefficient of friction at the work–
die interface = 0.07. The metal has a strength coefficient K = 205 MPa and a
strain-hardening exponent n = 0.20.
Determine the draw stress and draw force in this operation?
Solution:
The values of D and Lc for Eq. (7.6) can be determined. D= 2.25 mm and Lc
0.966 mm. Thus,

73
Example:1

74
CHAPTER -6: HYDROFORMING OF TUBES AND SHEETS

• Hydroforming is a specialized type of die forming that

uses a high pressure hydraulic fluid to press room
temperature working material into a die.
• Hydroforming is a cost-effective way of shaping ductile
metals such as aluminium, brass, low alloy steel, and
stainless steel into lightweight, structurally stiff and
strong pieces. One of the largest applications of
hydroforming is the automotive industry, which makes
use of the complex shapes made possible by
hydroforming to produce stronger, lighter, and more
rigid unibody structures for vehicles. This technique is
particularly popular with the high-end sports car
industry and is also frequently employed in the shaping
of aluminium tubes for bicycle frames.
75
6.1 Tube Hydroforming

• Tube hydroforming In tube hydroforming there are two

major practices: high pressure and low pressure.
With the high pressure process the tube is fully
enclosed in a die prior to pressurization of the tube. In
low pressure the tube is slightly pressurized to a fixed
volume during the closing of the die (this used to be
called the Variform process).
How tube hydroforming works
• The tube is placed in a special die.
• The fluid flows into the die.
• The tube is formed by the action of the fluid under
pressure (in some cases also due to the action of thrust
actuators)
• The hydroformed tube is removed from the die.
76
Cont.

77
6.1 Tube Hydroforming

An ideal technology for:

• Shaped tubes
• Conical tubes
• Tubes with variable diameter/radii
• Tubes with variable profiles
• Tubes with derivations (T, Y, etc.)

Hydroforming advantages
• Simplification and reduction of additional operations
• Possibility to make holes during the process
• No junction operations
• Reduction of the amount of special equipment
• Reduction of overall costs

78
Cont.

79
6.2 Sheet Hydroforming

What is Hydroforming?
Hydroforming (Sheet Hydroforming) is a specialized deep
draw process that uses high-pressure rubber to shape and
form metal workpieces. In sheet hydroforming, a metal
sheet is placed over a die before highly pressurized water
forces it down and makes it conform to the shape of the
mold.
Sheet hydroforming is a cost efficient way of shaping
metals such as aluminium, steel, Titanium, Inconel etc.
into structurally solid and strong light weighted
structures. Hydroforming is commonly used within the
automotive and aerospace industry where complex
shapes are required in large varieties, but in small
quantities of each
80
6.2 Sheet Hydroforming

81
6.2 Sheet Hydroforming

82
6.2 Sheet Hydroforming

• Sheet Hydroforming UsesTriform’s hydroforming

machines are frequently used in the aerospace &
defense industry where low-volume, high-mix
production is common. They are also also optimal for
job shops where tool changes occur multiple times each
hour as well as automotive, medical, lighting, energy,
and oil & gas industries.
Triform Competitive Advantages
• Inexpensive, un-mated tooling
• Accurate and repeatable forming
• Reduced reliance on skilled labor
• Complex, net-shape parts formed in a single cycle

83
2.4 Bulk Deformation Processes

• Characterized by significant deformations and massive

shape changes
• "Bulk" refers to work parts with relatively low surface
area‑to‑volume ratios.
• Starting work shapes are usually simple geometries
• Examples:
• Cylindrical billets
• Rectangular bars

84
 Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes
a) Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between opposing rolls
b) Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between opposing dies
c) Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening, thereby taking the
shape of the opening
d) Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is reduced by pulling it
through a die opening

(a). Rolling (b). Forging (c). Extrusion (d). Drawing

(a) Rolling (b) Forging (c) Extrusion (d) Wire and bar
drawing
85
 Sheet
Metalworking

86
 2.5 Sheet Metalworking

• Forming and related operations performed on

metal sheets, strips, and coils
• High surface area‑to‑volume ratio of starting
metal, which distinguishes these from bulk
deformation
• Often called press working because presses
perform these operations
– Parts are called stampings
– Usual tooling: punch and die

87
 2.5 SHEET METAL WORKING

1. Cutting Operations
2. Bending Operations
3. Drawing
4. Other Sheet Metal Forming Operations
Sheet Metalworking Defined
• Cutting and forming operations performed on relatively
thin sheets of metal
• Thickness of sheet metal = 0.4 mm (1/64in) to 6mm
(1/4 in)
• Thickness of plate stock > 6 mm
• Operations usually performed as cold working

88
 2.5 Sheet and Plate Metal Products

Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and

industrial products such as
• Automobiles and trucks
• Airplanes
• Railway cars and locomotives
• Farm and construction equipment
• Small and large appliances
• Office furniture
• Computers and office equipment

89
 Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts

• High strength
• Good dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finish
• Relatively low cost
• Economical mass production for large quantities
Sheet Metalworking Terminology
• Punch‑and‑die - tooling to perform cutting, bending, and
drawing
• Stamping press - machine tool that performs most sheet
metal operations
• Stampings - sheet metal products made by press machine

90
 Basic Types of Sheet Metal Processes

1. Cutting
• Shearing to separate large sheets
• Blanking to cut part perimeters out of sheet
metal
• Punching/ Piercing to make holes in sheet metal
2. Bending
• Straining sheet around a straight axis
3. Drawing
• Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes

91
 a) Shearing
• This process is somewhat out of place in the list of
deformation processes, because it involves cutting rather
than forming of the metal.
• A shearing operation cuts the work using a punch and die.
Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges:

(1) just before the punch contacts work;

(2) punch begins to push into work, causing plastic deformation;
92
 Sheet Metal Cutting - Shearing

(3) punch compresses and penetrates into work causing a

smooth cut surface;
(4) fracture is initiated at the opposing cutting edges
which separates the sheet.
93
 Blanking and Punching
Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece (called a
blank) from surrounding stock
Punching - is a metal fabricating process that removes a scrap
slug from the metal work piece each time a punch enters the
punching die. This process leaves a hole in the metal work
piece

(a) Blanking (b) punching. 94

 .
.

BLANKING.AVI

95
 Punch and Die Sizes

Die size determines

blank size Db;
Punch size determines
hole size Dh.;
c = clearance
96
 Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting

Distance between punch cutting edge and die cutting

edge
• Typical values range between 6% and 15% of stock
thickness
• If clearance is too small, fracture lines pass each
other, causing double buffing and larger force
• If too large, metal is pinched and bent between
cutting edges and excessive burr results

97
 Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting

Recommended clearance is calculated by:

c = at
where c = clearance; a = allowance; and t = stock
thickness
• Allowance a is determined according to type of metal
• Low “c” for soft materials
• High “c” for hard materials
• Typical “a” values for metals range from 0.04 to 0.09

98
 Punch and Die Sizes
– Blanking (Blank diameter is controlled)
- For a round blank of diameter, Db
– Diameter of die = blank diameter ( Db)
– Diameter of punch = Db - 2c c = clearance
– Punching (Hole diameter is controlled)
- For a round hole of diameter , Dh
Diameter of punch = hole diameter (Dh )
– Diameter of die = Dh + 2c
where c = clearance

99
Angular Clearance
Purpose: allows slug or blank to drop through die
• Typical values: 0.25 to 1.5 on each side

100
 Cutting Forces

Important for determining press size (tonnage)

F=StL
where S = shear strength of the metal;
t = stock thickness,
L = length of cut edge (contact length) =
L is basically perimeter of blank or hole being cut

The above formula is based on fact that entire

punch face is engaged in cutting.
If angled punched is used, cutting force will
reduce.

101
Example Problem

C= At

In blanking. Die size = blank size

Punch size = die size - 2C

102
 Example

F=StL

103
 b) Sheet metal Bending
• Straining sheet metal around a straight axis to take a
permanent bend

Bending of sheet metal 104

 Sheet metal Bending
• Metal below the neutral axis is compressed, while metal
above the neutral axis is stretched, Metal on neutral axis
neither stretched nor compressed
• The material is stressed beyond the yield strength but
below the ultimate tensile strength.
• Bending usually refers to deformation about one axis

105
 Types of Sheet Metal Bending
• V‑bending - performed with a V‑shaped die
• Edge bending - performed with a wiping die
V‑bending Edge bending -
• For low production • For high production
• Performed on a brake press • Pressure pad required
• V-dies are simple and • Dies are more complicated
inexpensive and costly

V-bend Edge bend

106
 Bend Allowance Formula
  
A  2 (R  K t)

 b 360 ba 

where Ab = bend allowance;  = bend angle; R= bend radius; t
= stock thickness; and Kba is factor to estimate stretching
• If R < 2t, Kba = 0.33
• If R  2t, Kba = 0.50
Spring Back(SB)
Increase in included angle of bent part relative to included
angle of forming tool after tool is removed
• Reason for spring-back:
– When bending pressure is removed, elastic energy
remains in bent part, causing it to recover partially
toward its original shape
107
 Spring back(SB)

SB= (α’-α’b)/α’b

in bending is seen as a decrease in bend angle and an increase in

bend radius:
(1) during bending, the work is forced to take radius Rb and
included angle b' of the bending tool,
(2) after punch is removed, the work springs back to radius R and
angle ‘.
108
 c) Drawing

Sheet metal forming to make cup‑shaped, box‑shaped, or

other complex‑curved, hollow‑shaped parts
• Sheet metal blank is positioned over die cavity and then
punch pushes metal into opening
• Products: beverage cans, ammunition shells, automobile
body panels
• Also known as deep drawing (to distinguish it from wire
and bar drawing)

109
 Cup deep drawing
• It is a sheet forming operation, in which the sheet is placed
over the die opening and is pushed by punch into the
opening. The sheet is held flat on the die surface by using a
blank holder.

c – clearance
– blank diameter
– punch diameter
– die corner radius
– punch corner radius
F – drawing force
– holding force

110
 Clearance in Drawing
• Sides of punch and die separated by a clearance c given by:
c = 1.1 t
where t = stock thickness
• In other words, clearance is about 10% greater than stock
thickness
Tests of Drawing Feasibility
• Drawing ratio
• Reduction
• Thickness-to-diameter ratio
Drawing ratio: Most easily defined for cylindrical shape:
= where = blank diameter
= punch diameter
upper limit: ≤ 2 111
 Forces in Sheet Drawing
Reduction(R) :Defined for cylindrical shape:
R=Value of R should be less or equal to 0.50
Thickness to diameter ratio (t/)
Desirable for t/ratio to be greater than 1%
As the ratio decreases, tendency for wrinkling increases.
• The limiting value for a given operation depends on punch
and die corner radii, friction conditions, draw depth, and
quality of the sheet metal like ductility, degree of
directionality of strength properties in the metal.
The maximum drawing force, F , can be estimated
approximately by the following equation .
t

112
Correction factor for friction
 Cont.
The holding force, Fh, is given by,

= (approx. holding force is one-third of drawing force)

=Tensile strength, = yield strength

Example Problem
1) A cup drawing operation is performed in which the inside
diameter = 80 mm and the height = 50 mm. The stock thickness = 3
mm, and the starting blank diameter = 150 mm. Punch and die
radii = 4 mm. Tensile strength = 400 MPa and a yield strength =
180 MPa for this sheet metal. Determine: (a) drawing ratio, (b)
reduction, (c) drawing force, and (d) blank holder force.
113