PROPERTIES

OF PERMUTATION
 2

Theorem 1: Products of
Disjoint Cycles

 Every permutation of a finite set can

be written as a cycle or as a product of
disjoint cycles.
3
 4

PROOF:
5
 6

Practice:
 7

Please Answer Me

Write the permutation (1243)(89)(236)

(189673)(783) in disjoint cycle form.

(19436782)
 8

Practice
1. What is the disjoint cycle form of the product
(13)(27)(456)(8)(1237)(648)(5)?

 (17324856)

2. Is economy in expression the only advantage to

writing a permutation in disjoint cycle form?
 No.
 9

Theorem 2: Disjoint Cycles

Commute
 If the pair of cycles
= (, ,...,) and
= (, ,...,) have no entries in common,
then
=
 10

For definiteness, let us say that 𝛼 and 𝛽 are permutations of the set
S = {𝒂𝟏, 𝒂𝟐, … , 𝒂𝒎 , 𝒃𝟏, 𝒃𝟐, … , 𝒃𝒏 , 𝒄𝟏, 𝒄𝟐, … , 𝒄𝒌 },
where the c’s are the members of S left fixed by both 𝛼 and 𝛽(there may not be
any c’s). To prove that 𝛼𝛽 = 𝛽𝛼, we must show that (𝛼𝛽)(x) = (𝛽𝛼)(x) for all x in S. If x
is one of the a elements, say 𝑎𝑖 , then
(𝜶𝜷)ሺ𝒂𝒊 ሻ = 𝜶(𝜷(𝒂𝒊 ) = 𝜶ሺ𝒂𝒊 ሻ = 𝒂𝒊+𝟏 ,

since 𝛽 fixes all a elements.(We interpret 𝑎𝑖+1 as 𝑎1 if i = m.) For the same reason,
(𝜷𝜶) ሺ𝒂𝒊 ሻ = 𝜷( 𝜶(𝒂𝒊 ))= ሺ𝜷(𝒂𝒊+𝟏 ሻ = 𝒂𝒊+𝟏 .
 11

Example:
(1,2)(3,4,5) (3,4,5)(1,2)
Can you
please give
an example
too?
 12

Theorem3: Order of a
Permutation
 The order of a permutation of a
finite set written in disjoint
cycle form is the least common
multiple of the lengths of the
cycles.
13
 14

Examples: Find the order of the following

permutations.
1. |(1 2 4) (3 5 6 7)| = 12
--- (3 and 4; LCM is 12)

2. |(1 3 5) (2 4)| = 6
--- ( 3 and 2; LCM is 6)
 15

Practice: Find the order of the following permutations.

1. = 6

2. = 6

3. =
 16

Arranging all possible disjoint structures of

elements of according to the longest cycle lengths
listed from left to right provides a systematic way of
counting number of elements in of any particular
order.
There are two cases: permutations where the
lengths of the disjoint cycles(ignoring 1- cycles) are
distinct and permutations where there are at least two
distinct cycles(ignoring 1- cycles) of the same length.
Example: 17

Determine the number of elements in 𝑆7 of order 12.

Solution:
By Theorem 2 and 3, count the number of permutations with disjoint cycle form
(𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 ) (𝑎5 𝑎6 𝑎7 ).
Consider the cycle (𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 ). Although the number of ways to fill these slots is
7∙ 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4, this product counts the cycle (𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 ) four times.
For example, the 4- cycle(2741) can also be written as (7412), (4127),(1274)
whereas the product 7∙ 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4 counts them as distinct. Likewise, the 3∙ 2 ∙ 1 expressions
for (𝑎5 𝑎6 𝑎7 ), (𝑎6 𝑎7 𝑎5 ) and (𝑎7 𝑎5 𝑎6 ) as distinct even though they are equal in 𝑆7 .
Adjusting for these multiple countings, we have that there are ( 7∙ 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4) (3∙ 2 ∙ 1) / (4∙
3) = 420 elements of order 12 in 𝑆7 .
 18
Example:
Determine the number of elements in 𝑆7 of order 3.

Solution: By Theorem 3, count the number of permutations with disjoint cycle form
(𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 ) and (𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 ) (𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 ).
There are ( 7∙ 6 ∙ 5)/3= 70 elements of the form (𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 ).
For elements of 𝑆7 of the form (𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 ) (𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 ) there are ( 7∙ 6 ∙ 5)/3 ways to
create the first cycle and (4∙ 3 ∙ 2) /3 to create the second cycle but the product of ( 7∙
6 ∙ 5)/3 and 4∙ 3 ∙ 2) /3 counts (𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 ) (𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 ) and (𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 ) (𝑎3 𝑎2 𝑎1 ) as distinct when
they are equal group elements. Thus, the number of elements of 𝑆7 of the form (𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 )
(𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 ) is ( 7∙ 6 ∙ 5) ( 4∙ 3 ∙ 2)/( 3∙ 3 ∙ 2) = 280.
This gives us 350 elements of order 3 in 𝑆7 .

To count the number of elements in 𝑆7 of the form say (𝑎1 𝑎2 ) (𝑎3 𝑎4 ) (𝑎5 𝑎6 ) , we
proceed as before to obtain (7∙ 6) (5 ∙ 4) (3∙ 2)/ (2∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 3!) = 105. The 3! term in the
denominator appears because there are 3! Ways the product of three 2 –cycles can be
written and each represents the same group element.
 19

Theorem 4: Products of 2-
Cycles

 Every permutation in
product of
2- cycles (also called transpositions).
 20

The identity can be written as (12)(12), and so it is a product of 2-cycles. By Theorem 1,

we know that every permutation can be written in the form

(𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐, … 𝒂𝒌 )( 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 … 𝒃𝒕 )⋯ ( 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟐 … 𝒄𝒔 ).
A direct computation shows that this is the same as
(𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝒌 )( 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝒌−𝟏 )⋯ (𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 )( 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝒕 )( 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝒕−𝟏)⋯ (𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 )⋯ )( 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝒔 )( 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝒔−𝟏)⋯
(𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟐 ).∎

Examples:
Transposition – a cycle of length 2 21

Ex. (1 2) (3 4) (2 3)
Note: Every transposition is its own inverse.

Every permutation can be written as a product of disjoint

cycles. Every cycle can be written as product of
transpositions.
22
23
 24

Example:

(12345) =
(15)(14)(13)(12)

Practice:
(1632)(457) =
(12)(13)(16)(47)(45)
 25

Lemma
26
 27

Theorem 5. Always Even or Always Odd

If a permutationcan be expressed as a product of an even (odd) number of 2-cycles, then
every decomposition of into a product of 2-cycles must have an even (odd) number of 2-
cycles. In symbols, if
and

where the and the are 2-cycles, the and are both even or both odd.

Every permutation is either even or odd.

i.e. Written as a product of 2 cycles, there are either an
even number of 2 cycles or an odd number of 2-cycles.
 28

Proof:
Let 𝛼 = γ1 γ2 …
and γ𝑠
Show that are both even or both odd.

¿
𝜀=𝛾 1 𝛾 2 … 𝛾𝑆
𝜀=𝛾 1 𝛾 2 … 𝛾𝛽 𝑟𝑆−1 … 𝛽2− 1 𝛽 1−1
𝜀=𝛾 1 𝛾 2 …𝛽𝛾𝑟 …
𝑆 𝛽1 𝛽 2
Thus, the lemma guarantees that is even.
It follows that and are both even or both odd.
 29

Definition: Even and Odd Permutations

A permutation that can be expressed as a product

of an even number of 2-cycles is called an even
permutation.
A permutation that can be expressed as a product
of an odd number of 2-cycles is called an odd
permutation.
 30
Take Note:
 Identity permutation is an even permutation
 Every cycle of odd length is an even permutation
 Every cycle of even length is an odd permutation
 Inverse of an even permutation is even
 Inverse of an odd permutation is odd

even even
odd odd

even even even

odd odd even
even odd odd
 31

Example:
Determine whether the following permutations are even
or odd.

1. 4.
2. (1 2 3 4) 5. (2 4 6) (3 5 6)
3. 6. (1 5 3 7) (2 6 4)
 32

Answer

1. (1 2 3)

(1 2 3) = (1 3) (1 2)

There are two transpositions.

Hence, (1 2 3) is an EVEN permutation.
 33

Answer

2. (1 2 3 4)

(1 2 3 4) = (1 4)(1 3) (1 2)

There are three transpositions.

Hence, (1 2 3 4) is an ODD permutation.
 34

Answer

3. 3. ( 3 2 1)
Write in cyclic notation. Write in standard order.

( (3 2 1
= )( 3 1()3 2 )
()
−1
1 2 32
2 3 11
3
2
1
3 (
) 3
1 2
1
3
2 )
1
Decompose by writing it as a product of disjoint cycles.

( 1
3
2
1
3
2 )= (1 3 2) = (1 2) (1 3) 3 2

There are two transpositions.

Hence is an EVEN permutation.
 35

Practice:
Determine whether the following permutations are even
or odd.

1. (1 5 3 7) (2 6 4)
2.
3. (2 4 6) (3 5 6)
 36

Answer

1. (1 5 3 7) (2 6 4)

(1 5 3 7) (2 6 4) = (1 7) (1 3) (1 5) (2 4) (2 6)

There are five transpositions.

Hence, (1 5 3 7) (2 6 4)is an ODD permutation.
 37

Answer

2.
4. (4 3 2 1)
Write in cyclic notation. Write in standard order.

( )( ( ( 434)3 2 =1 )( 4 1()4 2()4 3 )

−1
1 2 3 4 2 1 2 3
2 3 4 1 1
3
2
4
3
1
4 ) 4 1 2

1
Decompose by writing it as a product of disjoint cycles.
4 2
( 1
4
2
1
3
2
4
3 )= (1 4 3 2) = (1 2) (1 3) (1 4)
3
There are three transpositions.

Hence is an ODD permutation.

 38

Answer

3. (2 4 6) (3 5 6)

(2 4 6) (3 5 6) = (2 6) (2 4) (3 6) (3 5)

There are four transpositions.

Hence, (2 4 6) (3 5 6) is an EVEN permutation.
 39

Try This
Determine whether the following permutations are even or odd.

1. (125673) odd
2. (145)(8634)(46753) odd

3. (7561324)(879)(5416)(9876) even

4.

=(12) (35647) (1423) even

 40

Theorem 6. Even Permutations Form a Group

 Theorem 6. Even Permutations Form a Group 41

PROOF
Since is finite, let’s use the finite subgroup test: - symmetric group

Show that - alternating group

L t…
𝛽 ∈ 𝐴𝑛 𝛽= 𝛽1 𝛽 2 𝛽3 … 𝛽 2 𝑙

2 ( 𝑘+ 𝑙 )Thus,
If and are both even, then is also even since it is an even number of 2-cycles followed by an even number of 2-cycles.
By Finite Subgroup Test, we showed that multiplication is closed for even permutations, and thus we have a subgroup.
Theorem 6. Even Permutations Form a Group 42

Definition Alternating Group of Degree n

The group of even permutations of n symbols is

denoted by and is called the alternating group of
degree n.
Theorem 6. Even Permutations Form a Group 43

Example: Elements of

𝑆 3= {𝑒 , ( 1 2 3 ) , ( 13 2 ) , ( 1 2 ) , ( 1 , 3 ) , ( 2 3 ) }
Theorem 6. Even Permutations Form a Group 44

Example: Elements of in relation :

• In general,
is a subgroup of if .
Theorem 6. Even Permutations Form a Group 45

Example: Elements of and

𝑆 3= {𝑒 , ( 1 2 3 ) , ( 1 3 2 ) , ( 1 2 ) , ( 1 |
,𝑆3 )3|
,=6
( 2 3) }

𝐴 3 = {𝑒 , ( 1 2 3 ) , ( 1 3 2 ) } | 𝐴 3|=3
Theorem 6. Even Permutations Form a Group 46

Example: Eand .

|𝑆4|= 24
| 𝐴 4|= 12
Theorem 6. Even Permutations Form a Group 47

𝑆 𝑛= 𝑛 !

𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑜𝑑𝑑

𝐴𝑛
|𝑆3|=6| 𝐴 3|=3 |𝑆4|=|24
𝐴 4 |= 12
 48

Theorem 7

For , has order

49
50
51
52
53