Computer

• The need for a mechanism to perform lengthy

calculations led to the invention of, first, calculator and
then computers.
• The term computer is derived from the word compute,
which means to calculate. A computer is an electronic
machine devised for performing calculations and
controlling operations that can be expressed either in
logical or in numerical terms. In simple words, a
computer is an electronic device that performs diverse
operations with the help of instructions to process the
data in order to achieve desired results.
 Characteristics of Computers
• Speed: The computers process data at an
extremely fast rate, at millions or billions of
instructions per second. The speed of a
computer is calculated in MHz (megahertz),
that is, one million instructions per second.
• Accuracy: Besides the efficiency, the
computers are also very accurate.
 Characteristics of Computers
• Diligence: Computer, being a machine, does not suffer from
the human traits of tiredness and lack of concentration. If
four million calculations have to be performed, then the
computer will perform the last four-millionth calculation
with the same accuracy and speed as the first calculation.
• Reliability: Generally, reliability is the measurement of the
performance of a computer, which is measured against
some predetermined standard for operation without any
failure. The major reason behind the reliability of the
computers is that, at hardware level, it does not require any
human intervention between its processing operations.
 Characteristics of Computers
• Storage Capability: Computers can store large
amounts of data and can recall the required
information almost instantaneously.
• Versatility: Computers are quite versatile in
nature. It can perform multiple tasks
simultaneously with equal ease. For example, at
one moment it can be used to draft a letter,
another moment it can be used to play music and
in between, one can print a document as well.
 Characteristics of Computers
• Resource Sharing: In the initial stages of
development, computers used to be isolated
machines. With the tremendous growth in
computer technologies, computers today have
the capability to connect with each other. This has
made the sharing of costly resources like printers
possible. Apart from device sharing, data and
information can also be shared among groups of
computers, thus creating a large information and
knowledge base
 Evolution of Computers
• The need for a device to do calculations along with the
growth in commerce and other human activities explains the
evolution of computers.
• In the beginning, when the task was simply counting or
adding, people used either their fingers or pebbles along
lines in the sand. In order to conveniently have the sand and
pebbles all the time, people in Asia Minor built a counting
device called abacus. This device allowed users to do
calculations using a system of sliding beads arranged on a
rack. The abacus was simple to operate and was used
worldwide for centuries.
 Evolution of Computers
• In 1642, a French mathematician, Blaise
Pascal, invented the first functional automatic
calculator. This brass rectangular box, also
called a Pascaline, used eight movable dials to
add numbers up to eight figures long.
 Evolution of Computers
• In 1694, a German mathematician, Gottfried
Wilhem von Leibniz, extended Pascal's design
to perform multiplication, division and to find
square root. This machine is known as
the Stepped Reckoner.
 Evolution of Computers
• The real beginning of computers as we know
them today, however, lay with an English
mathematics professor, Charles Babbage. In
1822, he proposed a machine to perform
differential equations, called a Difference
Engine. Powered by steam and as large as a
locomotive, the machine would have a stored
program and could perform calculations and
print the results automatically.
 Evolution of Computers
• The start of World War II produced a
substantial need for computer capacity,
especially for military purposes. One early
success was the Mark I, which was built as a
partnership between Harvard Aiken and IBM
in 1944. This electronic calculating machine
used relays and electromagnetic components
to replace mechanical components.
 Evolution of Computers
• In 1946, John Eckert and John Mauchly of the
Moore School of Engineering at the University of
Pennsylvania developed the Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). This
computer used electronic vacuum tubes to make
the internal parts of the computer.
• Later on, Eckert and Mauchly also proposed the
development of the Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer (EDVAC). It was the first
electronic computer to use the stored program
concept introduced by John Von Neumann.
 Evolution of Computers
• The Eckert–Mauchly Corporation manufactured
the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) in 1951
and its implementation marked the real beginning of
the computer era.
• In the 1980s, Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
design, in which hundreds of thousands of transistors
were placed on a single chip, became increasingly
common. The “shrinking” trend continued with the
introduction of personal computers (PCs), which are
programmable machines small enough and
inexpensive enough to be purchased and used by
individuals.
 Evolution of Computers
• Microprocessors equipped with the read-only
memory (ROM), which stores constantly used and
unchanging programs, performed an increased
number of functions. By the late 1980s, some PCs
were run by microprocessors that were capable of
handling 32 bits of data at a time and processing
about 4,000,000 instructions per second. By the
1990s, PCs became part of everyday life. This
transformation was the result of the invention of
the microprocessor, a processor on a
single integrated circuit (IC) chip.
 First Generation (1940 to 1956): Vacuum
Tubes
• First-generation computers were vacuum
tubes/thermionic valve-based machines. These
computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and
magnetic drums for memory. A magnetic drum is a
metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron oxide
material on which data and programs can be stored.
The input was based on punched cards and paper
tape, and the output was in the form of printouts
• First-generation computers relied on binary-coded
language also called machine language (language of 0s
and 1s) to perform operations and were able to solve
only one problem at a time.
First Generation (1940 to 1956): Vacuum Tubes
• Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC and UNIVAC.

Characteristics of First-generation Computers

• These computers were based on vacuum tube technology.
• These were the fastest computing devices of their times (computation time
was in milliseconds).
• These computers were very large and required a lot of space for installation.
• Since thousands of vacuum tubes were used, they generated a large amount
of heat. Therefore, air conditioning was essential.
• These were non-portable and very slow equipments.
• They lacked in versatility and speed.
• They were very expensive to operate and used a large amount of electricity.
• These machines were unreliable and prone to frequent hardware failures.
Hence, constant maintenance was required.
• Since machine language was used, these computers were difficult to
program and use.
 Second Generation (1956 to 1963):
Transistors
• Second-generation computers used transistors,
which were superior to vacuum tubes. A transistor is
made up of semiconductor material like germanium
and silicon. It usually has three leads and performs
electrical functions such as voltage, current or
power amplification with low power requirements.
Since a transistor is a small device, the physical size
of computers was greatly reduced.
• In second-generation computers, magnetic cores
were used as the primary memory and magnetic
disks as the secondary storage devices.
 Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Transistors
• Assembly language uses mnemonics (abbreviations) for instructions
rather than numbers, for example, ADD for addition and MULT for
multiplication. As a result, programming became less cumbersome.
Early high-level programming languages such as COBOL and FORTRAN
also came into existence in this period.
• Examples: PDP-8, IBM 1401 and IBM 7090.
Characteristics of Second-generation Computers
• These machines were based on transistor technology.
• These were smaller as compared to the first-generation computers.
• The computational time of these computers was reduced to
microseconds from milliseconds.
• These were more reliable and less prone to hardware failure. Hence,
they required less frequent maintenance.
• These were more portable and generated less amount of heat.
• Assembly language was used to program computers. Hence,
programming became more time-efficient and less cumbersome.
 Third Generation (1964 to Early 1970s):
Integrated Circuits
• The development of the integrated circuit, also called an IC,
was the trait of the third-generation computers.
An IC consists of a single chip (usually silicon) with many
components such as transistors and resistors fabricated on it.
ICs replaced several individually wired transistors. This
development made computers smaller in size, reliable and
efficient .
• Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with
third-generation computers through keyboards and
monitors, and interfaced with the operating system. This
allowed the device to run many different applications
simultaneously with a central program that monitored the
memory.
 Third Generation (1964 to Early 1970s): Integrated
Circuits
• Examples: NCR 395 and B6500.
Characteristics of Third-generation Computers
• These computers were based on IC technology.
• These were able to reduce the computational time from
microseconds to nanoseconds.
• These were easily portable and more reliable than the second-
generation computers.
• These devices consumed less power and generated less heat. In
some cases, air conditioning was still required.
• The size of these computers was smaller as compared to previous-
generation computers.
• Since hardware rarely failed, the maintenance cost was quite low.
• Extensive use of high-level languages became possible.
 Fourth Generation (Early 1970s to Till
Date): Microprocessors
• The fourth generation is an extension of third generation
technology. Although, the technology of this generation
is still based on the IC, these have been made readily
available to us because of the development of the
microprocessor (circuits containing millions of
transistors). The Intel 4004 chip, which was developed in
1971, took the IC one step further by locating all the
components of a computer (CPU, memory and I/O
controls) on a minuscule chip. A microprocessor is built
on to a single piece of silicon, known as chip. It is about
0.5 cm along one side and no more than 0.05 cm thick.
 Fourth Generation (Early 1970s to Till Date): Microprocessors

• The fourth-generation computers led to an era

of Large Scale Integration (LSI)
and VLSI technology. LSI technology allowed
thousands of transistors to be constructed on one
small slice of silicon material, whereas VLSI
squeezed hundreds of thousands of components
on to a single chip. Ultra Large Scale Integration
(ULSI) increased that number to the millions. This
way computers became smaller and cheaper than
ever before.
 Fourth Generation (Early 1970s to Till Date): Microprocessors

• Moreover, secondary memories such as hard

disks became economical, smaller and bigger
in capacity. The other significant development
of this era was that these computers could be
linked together to form networks, which
eventually led to the development of the
Internet. This generation also saw the
development of the Graphical User Interfaces
(GUIs), mouse and handheld devices.
• Examples: Apple II, Altair 8800 and CRAY-1.
 Fourth Generation (Early 1970s to Till Date): Microprocessors

Characteristics of Fourth-generation Computers

• These computers are microprocessor-based systems.
• These are very small in size.
• These are the cheapest among all the other generation computers.
• These are portable and quite reliable.
• These machines generate negligible amount of heat, hence do not
require air conditioning.
• Hardware failure is negligible so minimum maintenance is
required.
• The production cost is very low.
• The GUI and pointing devices enabled users to learn to use the
computer quickly.
• Interconnection of computers led to better communication and
resource sharing.
 Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond):
Artificial Intelligence
• The dream of creating a human-like computer that
would be capable of reasoning and reaching at a
decision through a series of “what-if-then” analyses
has existed since the beginning of computer
technology. Such a computer would learn from its
mistakes and possess the skill of experts. These are
the objectives for creating the fifth generation of
computers.
• The expert system is defined as a computer system
that attempts to mimic the thought process and
reasoning of experts in specific areas.
 Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial
Intelligence

Three characteristics can be identified with the fifth-generation computers.

These are:
• Mega Chips: Fifth-generation computers will use Super Large Scale
Integrated (SLSI) chips, which will result in the production of
microprocessors having millions of electronic components on a single chip.
In order to store instructions and information, fifth-generation computers
require a great amount of storage capacity. Mega chips may enable the
computer to approximate the memory capacity of the human mind.
• Parallel Processing: Computers with one processor access and execute only
one instruction at a time. This is called serial processing. However, fifth-
generation computers will use multiple processors and perform parallel
processing, thereby accessing several instructions at once and working on
them at the same time.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI): It refers to a series of related technologies that
try to simulate and reproduce human behavior, including thinking, speaking
and reasoning. AI comprises a group of related technologies: expert systems
(ES), natural language processing (NLP), speech recognition, vision
Based on
Function
 Digital Computer
Digital Computer is any of a class of devices capable of solving problems by
processing information in discrete form. It operates on data, including magnitudes,
letters, and symbols, that are expressed in binary code – i.e., using the only two
digits 0 and 1. They work by counting, comparing and manipulating these digits or
their combinations according to a set of instructions held in its memory.

Control industrial processes

Analyse and organise vast amounts of business

data

Usage Simulate behavoiur of dynamic systems in

scientific research (e.g. global weather patterns)

Regulate the operations of machines

 Analog Computer
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously changeable
aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to
model the problem being solved. Analog computer performs tasks by measuring the
physical values rather than counting numbers.

Analog computers do not require any storage capability because they measure and
compare quantities in a single operation. Output from an analog computer is generally
in the form of readings on a series of dial (Speedometer of a car) or a graph on strip
chart.

Speedometer
Oil
refinery
Paper
making
Chemical
industry
Voltmeter

Thermometer
 Hybrid Computer
A hybrid computing system is one in which desirable characteristics of both the analog
and digital computers are integrated. They have the speed of an analog computer and
the accuracy of a digital one. They are usually used for special problems in which input
data is derived from measurements and converted into digits and then processed by
computers.
The results can be obtained either as analog signal or discrete signal. This result can be
obtained by an electronic device ‘MODEM’. A modem is a device which can transform
analog signals to digital signals vice versa.

Automated Teller
Machine (ATM)

Electrocardiogram
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
 Microcomputers
• A microcomputer is a small, low-cost digital computer,
which usually consists of a microprocessor, a storage
unit, an input channel and an output channel, all of
which may be on one chip inserted into one or several
PC boards. The addition of power supply and
connecting cables, appropriate peripherals (keyboard,
monitor, printer, disk drives and others), an operating
system and other software programs can provide a
complete microcomputer system. The micro-
computer is generally the smallest of the computer
family.
• Microcomputers include desktop, laptop and hand-
held models such as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs).
 Microcomputers
• Desktop Computer: The desktop computer, also
known as the PC, is principally intended for stand-
alone use by an individual. These are the most-
common type of microcomputers. These
microcomputers typically consist of a system unit, a
display monitor, a keyboard, an internal hard disk
storage and other peripheral devices. The main
reason behind the importance of the PCs is that
they are not very expensive for the individuals or
the small businesses. Some of the major PC
manufacturers are APPLE, IBM, Dell and Hewlett-
Packard.
 Microcomputers
• Laptop: A laptop is a portable computer that a
user can carry around. Since the laptop
resembles a notebook, it is also known as
the notebook computer. Laptops are small
computers enclosing all the basic features of a
normal desktop computer. The biggest
advantage of laptops is that they are
lightweight and one can use them anywhere
and at anytime, especially when one is
travelling.
 Microcomputers
• Hand-held Computers: A hand-held computer such as
a PDA is a portable computer that can conveniently be
stored in a pocket (of sufficient size) and used while the
user is holding it.
• A PDA user generally uses a pen or electronic stylus,
instead of a keyboard for input.
• Since these computers can be easily fitted on the top of
the palm, they are also known as palmtop computers.
Handheld computers usually have no disk drive; rather,
they use small cards to store programs and data.
However, they can be connected to a printer or a disk
drive to generate output or store data.
 Minicomputers
• A minicomputer is a small digital computer, which normally
is able to process and store less data than a mainframe but
more than a microcomputer, while doing so less rapidly
than a mainframe but more rapidly than a microcomputer.
It is about the size of a two-drawer filing cabinet.
• A minicomputer (sometimes called a mid-range computer)
is designed to meet the computing needs of several people
simultaneously in a small- to medium-sized business
environment. It is capable of supporting from four to
about 200 simultaneous users. It serves as a centralized
storehouse for a cluster of workstations or as a network
server. Minicomputers are usually multi-user systems so
these are used in interactive applications in industries,
research organizations, colleges and universities.
 Mainframes
• A mainframe is an ultra-high performance computer
made for high-volume, processor-intensive computing.
It consists of a high-end computer processor, with
related peripheral devices, capable of supporting large
volumes of data processing, high-performance online
transaction processing, and extensive data storage and
retrieval.
• The mainframe allows its users to maintain a large
amount of data storage at a centralized location and to
access and process these data from different
computers located at different locations. It is typically
used by large businesses and for scientific purposes.
Some examples of the mainframe are IBM's ES000, VAX
8000 and CDC 6600.
 Mainframes
• Mainframes are the second largest (in
capability and size) of the computer family,
the largest being the supercomputers.
However, mainframes can usually execute
many programs simultaneously at a high
speed, whereas supercomputers are designed
for a single process.
 Supercomputers
• Supercomputers are the special-purpose machines,
which are especially designed to maximize the
numbers of floating point operations per second
(FLOPS). Any computer below one gigaflop per
second is not considered a supercomputer. A
supercomputer has the highest processing speed
at a given time for solving scientific and
engineering problems. Essentially, it contains a
number of CPUs that operate in parallel to make it
faster.
 Supercomputers
• A supercomputer can process a great deal of data and
make extensive calculations very quickly.
• It is the fastest, costliest and most powerful computer
available today.
• Cinematic specialists use them to produce sophisticated
movie animations. Scientists build complex models and
simulate them in a supercomputer. However, a
supercomputer has limited broad-spectrum use
because of its price and limited market. The largest
commercial uses of supercomputers are in the
entertainment/advertising industry. CRAY-3, Cyber 205
and PARAM are some well-known supercomputers.
 India's Super Achievement
• In 2003, India developed the PARAM Padma
supercomputer, which marks an important
step towards high-performance computing.
The PARAM Padma computer was developed
by India's Center for Development of
Advanced Computer (C-DAC) and promises
processing speeds of up to 1 teraflop per
second (1 trillion processes per second).