PROCESS SKILLS

DR. MIHESO MARGEURITE

Process Skills
Lesson Objective

• By the end of this session, students should

be able to appreciate and understand the
importance of the five (5) Process
Standards identified by the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000.

 Problem Solving;
 Communication;
 Representations;
 Connections; and
 Reasoning and Proof. Process Skills
 NCTM Process Standards
• Problem Solving;
• Communication;
• Representations;
• Connections; and
• Reasoning and Proof.
These Standards are key to an active vision
of learning and doing Mathematics
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(NCTM, 2000) Process Skills
 Basic Questions to consider

1. In what ways (s) is teaching mathematics through problem solving

different from simply teaching students to solve problems?
2. How can students be encouraged to communicate their
mathematical thinking?
3. What are the goals for representation as a process in school
mathematics?
4.What connections are important to assist students in the learning of
mathematics?
5. For students, what does mathematical reasoning involve and how
does it help them make sense of mathematical knowledge and
relationships?
Quick Recap

• The ultimate goal of teaching and learning

of Mathematics is Mathematisation of the
Child’s Thinking.
• Clarity of thought and pursuing
assumptions to logical conclusion is
central to Mathematical enterprise
• It is important for Mathematics teachers to
push the students to think, develop
positive attitudes towards Mathematics
and competencies to solve all kind of
problems in a systematic manner
Process Skills
Problem Solving

• Definition:
• Problem: unfamiliar situation which has to
be solved. Its solution is to be explored by
the learner
• Problem Solving; A process of applying
Mathematics to unfamiliar situations.
Important – IDENTIFY AND USE
INFORMATION AND FACTS

Process Skills
Problem Solving

Teaching Mathematics through Problem

Solving is different from simply teaching
students to solve problems
• Need to build New Mathematical knowledge
Through Problem solving
• Solve Problems Arising In Mathematics and
Other Contexts
• Apply & adapt A Variety of Appropriate
Strategies To Solve Problems
• Monitor and Reflect on the Process of
Mathematical Problem Solving

Process Skills
Rationale for Problem Solving

• Reason for studying Mathematics

• Provides contexts for applying and
learning concepts and skills
• Provides opportunities to relate
Mathematics with real world; appreciate
usefulness
• Opportunities to see inter-connections
among Mathematical ideas

Process Skills
Rationale Contd.

• Opportunities to develop critical and

analytical skills by using different
Problem Solving strategies
• Develops a positive attitude towards
Mathematics and problem solving

Process Skills
Approaches

 Teaching about Problem Solving : Emphasis is on

general methods of analyzing and solving
problems as well as different solving strategies
in the context of problem situation
 Teaching for Problem Solving : Emphasis of
mathematical concepts and skills needed to solve
word problems. Approach focuses on problem
solving as an instructional goal.

Process Skills
Approaches Contd.

• Teaching Through Problem Solving:

Emphasis to the teaching and learning of
NEW Mathematical concepts in the
context of problem solving.
Approach considers problem solving as an
instructional method

Process Skills
Problem Solving as a Teaching Approach

 The focus is on teaching mathematical

topics through problem-solving contexts
and enquiry-oriented environments which
are characterised by the teacher:

– “helping students construct a deep

understanding of Mathematical ideas and
processes by engaging them in doing
Mathematics: creating, conjecturing,
exploring, testing, and verifying”
Process Skills
Characteristics of Problem Solving
approach

 Interactions
between students/students
and teacher/students (Van Zoest et al.,
1994)

 Mathematical
dialogue and consensus
between students (Van Zoest et al., 1994)

Process Skills
Characteristics of Problem Solving approach Contd.

Teachers providing just enough

information to establish background/intent
of the problem, and students clarifing,
interpreting, and attempting to construct
one or more solution processes (Cobb et
al., 1991)

Teachers accepting right/wrong answers in

a non-evaluative way (Cobb et al., 1991)
Process Skills
Characteristics of Problem Solving
Approach Contd.

• Teachers guiding, coaching, asking insightful

questions and sharing/mentoring/coaching in the
process of solving problems (Lester et al., 1994)
• Teachers knowing when it is appropriate to
intervene, and when to step back and let the
pupils make their own way (Lester et al., 1994)
• Can be used to encourage students to make
generalizations about rules and concepts, a
process which is central to Mathematics (Evan
and Lappin, 1994).

Process Skills
PROBLEM SOLVING EVOLVED
• Early problem-solving focused on problems
amenable to solutions by Polya-type heuristics:
draw a diagram, examine special cases or
analogies, specialize, generalize, and so on.
• Now Problem Solving evolved to where the focus
is less on heuristics per se and more on
introducing students to fundamental ideas: the
importance of mathematical reasoning and
proof..., for example, and of sustained
mathematical investigations (where problems
serve as starting points for serious explorations,
rather than tasks to be completed).
Process Skills
When is a problem good
 Schoenfeld (1994) should be one which can be
extended to lead to mathematical explorations and
generalisations. He described three characteristics of
mathematical thinking:
 Valuing the processes of mathematization and
abstraction and having the predilection to apply them
 Developing competence with the tools of the trade
and
 Using those tools in the service of the goal of
understanding structure - mathematical sense-
making (Schoenfeld, 1994, p.60).

Process Skills
Good Problems Contd.

• As Cobb et al. (1991) suggested, the

purpose for engaging in problem solving is
not just to solve specific problems, but to
'encourage the interiorization and
reorganization of the involved schemes as
a result of the activity' (p.187).

Process Skills
Good Problems Contd.

• Not only does this approach develop

students' confidence in their own ability to
think mathematically (Schifter and Fosnot,
1993), it is a vehicle for students to
construct, evaluate and refine their own
theories about mathematics and the
theories of others (NCTM, 1989). Because
it has become so predominant a
requirement of teaching, it is important to
consider the processes.
Process Skills
Characteristics of mathematical thinking

 Valuing the processes of mathematization

and abstraction and having the
predilection to apply them
 Developing competence with the tools of
the trade and
 using those tools in the service of the goal
of understanding structure - mathematical
sense-making (Schoenfeld, 1994, p.60).
Process Skills
Characteristics of mathematical thinking
Contd.

• As Cobb et al. (1991) suggested, the purpose for

engaging in problem solving is not just to solve
specific problems, but to 'encourage the
interiorization and reorganization of the involved
schemes as a result of the activity' (p.187). Not
only does this approach develop students'
confidence in their own ability to think
mathematically (Schifter and Fosnot, 1993), it is a
vehicle for students to construct, evaluate and
refine their own theories about mathematics and
the theories of others (NCTM, 1989).
Process Skills
ROLE OF PROBLEM SOLVING
 The Role of Problem Solving in
Teaching Mathematics as a Process
 Problem solving is an important
component of Mathematics Education
because it is the single vehicle which
seems to be able to achieve at school
level all three of the values of
mathematics : i.e
 1.Functional, 2. Logical and 3 .Aesthetic

Process Skills
Polya’s Steps in Problem Solving

George Polya wrote “How to solve It” in

1945 and identified four basic
principles/steps of Problem Solving:

• Step 1: Understand the Problem;

• Step 2: Devise a Plan;
• Step 3: Carry out the Plan; and
• Step 4: Look back

Process Skills
Polya’s Steps Contd.
1. UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM:
– IDENTIFY THE
» The GIVEN
» The UNKNOWN
» The WANTED
2. DESIGN A PLAN
 Look for a pattern
 Examine related problems

Process Skills
Polya’s Steps Contd.

• 3. CARRY OUT THE PLAN

Implement the Plan and perform
actions/computations as necessary
Check each step of the Plan as you
proceed
Keep an accurate record of your work

• 4. LOOKING BACK
 Check the results
 Does your solution make sense?
Process Skills
TYPES OF PROBLEMS

• ROUTINE
RECALL, ALGORITHMIC, APPLICATION
• OPEN ENDED
– PROCESS OPEN, RESULTS OPEN,
ACTIVITIES OPEN
• SITUATIONAL
• DISCOVERY/GUIDED
• DISCOVERY/PUZZLES

Process Skills
Teaching Problem Solving Strategies

•Model positive attitudes

•Choose problems carefully
•Identify: wanted, given, needed
•Pose problems and let the students
practise solving them
Best approach is to practise solving
good problems often and vary the
problems

Process Skills
COMMUNICATION

• Students should be able to:

▫ organize and consolidate their mathematical
thinking through communication
▫ communicate their mathematical thinking
coherently and clearly to peers, teachers, and others
▫ analyze and evaluate the mathematical thinking and
strategies of others
▫ use the language of mathematics to express
mathematical ideas precisely

Process Skills
Communication Contd.

• Organize and consolidate their

Mathematical thinking through
communication
• Communicate their Mathematical
thinking and strategies of others
• Use language of mathematics to
express Mathematical ideas precisely

Process Skills
Mathematical objects

 X+3) x-4)=8 x

• Literal, equation in x, solve for x, open
bracket x plus 3 close bracket, open
bracket x minus 4 close bracket, equals 8
and x is an element of the natural
numbers.
• Algebraic. The product of, a natural
number increased by three, and a natural
number 4 less than the same natural
number, is equal to 8
Process Skills
Mathematical objects cont.

• Graphical. The x coordinate  that is a natural

number) of the point s) where the minimum
value parabola y= x+3)x-4), initially decreasing
and then increasing after its turning point, cuts
the constant function y=8
• Procedural. Recognise covert quadratic
equation by seeing x squared as a term of the
equation. Multiply out the LHS and add the
addition inverse of 8 to both sides to get the
equation into standard quadratic form, and in
deceasing
Process Skills
Mathematical objects cont

• Procedural…
and in decreasing order, with RHS equal to
zero. Factorise the LHS. Use the product
zero theorem which states that if the
product of any number of factors is equal
to zero, then each factor could be zero.
Obtain x=-4 or x=5 as the roots but reject
x=-4 because x is an element of the
natural numbers

Process Skills
MATHEMATICSL OBJECTS***

• Describe these mathematical objects

x2-x)2; 2-x < 7; 4/x  x in the
following forms
Literal
Algebraic
Graphical
Procedural

Process Skills
REPRESENTATION

Students should be able to:

▫ Create and use representations to organize,

record, and communicate mathematical ideas
▫ Select, apply, and translate among
mathematical representations to solve
problems
▫ Use representations to model and interpret
physical, social, and mathematical phenomena

Process Skills
 Representation

Which graph best

represents the height
of students in the
class?
N.B The circle graph does not
order the heights as clearly as
either the bar or line graph.
The line graph incorrectly
gives the impression that
there are children of heights
between the measurement
points.

Reys/ Lindquist/ Lamdin/ Smith, Helping Children Learn Math,

Process Skills 9th Edition, © 2009
Representations Contd.

• Create and use representations to Organize,

Record And Communicate Mathematical Ideas.
• Select, Apply And Translate Among
Mathematical Representations To Solve
Problems
• Use Representations To Model And Interpret
Physical, Social And Mathematical Phenomena

Process Skills
 Five Ways to Represent
Pictures

Mathematical Ideas
Mani-pulatives Written
symbols

Relevant Spoken
situations language

Reys/ Lindquist/ Lamdin/ Smith, Helping Children Learn Math,

Process Skills 9th Edition, © 2009
CONNECTIONS

Students should be able to:

▫ recognize and use connections among
mathematical ideas
▫ understand how mathematical ideas
interconnect and build on one another to
produce a coherent whole
▫ recognize and apply mathematics in
contexts outside of mathematics

Process Skills
Connections between Symbols
and Conceptual Understanding

Arranging dots in square patterns

connects the number 1, 4, 9 and 16 to
their reference as square numbers

Reys/ Lindquist/ Lamdin/ Smith, Helping Children Learn Math,

Process Skills 9th Edition, © 2009
Connections Contd.

• Recognize and use Connections Among

Mathematical Ideas
• Understand How Mathematical Ideas
Interconnect and Build On Another to
Produce a Coherent Whole
• Recognize and Apply Mathematics in
Contexts Outside of Mathematics

Process Skills
Reasoning and Proof

• Students should be able to:

▫ Recognize reasoning and proofs as
fundamental aspects of mathematics
▫ Make and investigate mathematical
conjectures
▫ Develop and evaluate mathematical
arguments and proofs
▫ Select and use various types of
reasoning and methods of proof

Process Skills
 Reasoning and Proof
Pictures of odds
and evens can help
students justify why
the sum of two odd
numbers is always
even.

Reys/ Lindquist/ Lamdin/ Smith, Helping Children Learn Math,

Process Skills 9th Edition, © 2009
Reasoning and Proof Contd.

• Recognize Reasoning & Proof as

Fundamental Aspects of
Mathematical arguments
• Make & Investigate Mathematical
Conjectures
• Develop & Evaluate M~ Arguments
And Proofs
• Select, Use Various Types of
Reasoning and Methods of Proof
Process Skills
Mathematical Reasoning Leads to Mathematical
Memory Built on Relationships

Figures A 10-by-11
rectangle built with two
staircases from 1 to 10 can
help you remember the
formula for the sum of a
series of numbers

Reys/ Lindquist/ Lamdin/ Smith, Helping Children Learn Math,

Process Skills 9th Edition, © 2009
How Can Teachers Support Mathematics
Learning with the Process Standards?

For each standard, list specific

instructional practices you plan to include
in your classroom.
 Problem Solving -encourage sense
making, non-routine problems
 Communication-work individually and in small
groups, use whole class discussion, and writing

Reys/ Lindquist/ Lamdin/ Smith, Helping Children Learn Math,

Process Skills 9th Edition, © 2009
 How Can Teachers Support Mathematics
Learning with the Process Standards? (cont’d)

 Representations-provide a variety of materials, have

students use objects, symbols, pictures and look for
various representations/solutions

 Connections-connect to real life and other subjects

 Reasoning and Proof -encourage conjectures and

explanation of ideas

Reys/ Lindquist/ Lamdin/ Smith, Helping Children Learn Math,

Process Skills 9th Edition, © 2009
Summary

Process Skills