Electrons in atoms

Electronic Configuration: shells and sub-

shells
 In the Bohr model of the atom, electrons circle the
nucleus in the same way that planets orbit the sun.
 Negative electrons are attracted to the positive
nucleus.
 It takes energy to move an electron away from the
nucleus to an outer circle.
 Electronic Configuration: shells and sub-
shells
 The circles where electrons orbit are referred to as energy
levels or shells.
 Electrons in the outermost circles have higher energy since
it requires more effort to pull the electrons a greater
distance from the nucleus.
Electron Cloud Model
 Principle Energy Levels / shells

Contain electrons that are

 Close in energy
 Similar distance from nucleus
 Have values of n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6…..
Maximum electrons
 Maximum number of electrons = 2n2 per shell
1st shell 2
2nd shell 8
3rd shell 18
4th shell 32
5th shell 50
 LEVELS AND SUB-LEVELS
PRINCIPAL SUB LEVELS
ENERGY
LEVELS A study of Ionisation Energies and the
4 periodic properties of elements suggested
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS that the main energy levels were split
into sub levels.
Level 1 was split into 1 sub level

3
Level 2 was split into 2 sub levels
Level 3 was split into 3 sub levels
Level 4 was split into 4 sub levels

1
 Sub – levels in Energy Levels
Main
Energy
Levels Max Number of Electrons Sublevels
n=4 32
4s, 4p, 4d, 4f

n=3 18

3s, 3p, 3d

n=2 8

2s, 2p
n=1 2
1s
 Sub Energy Level
 All electrons in the same sublevel have the same energy.
 All 2s electrons have the same energy. All 2p electrons have the
same energy which is slightly higher than the energy of the 2s
electrons
 Orbitals in Sub Shell

 Within each sublevel, there are

orbitals.
 This is the final location where
electrons reside.
 Each sublevel has a certain number
of orbitals.
 Atomic orbitals

 Orbitals are areas or shape of the space within atoms

where there is a high probability of finding electrons.
 An Orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.
Filling the orbitals
 ORDER OF FILLING ORBITALS
PRINCIPAL SUB LEVELS PRINCIPAL SUB LEVELS
ENERGY ENERGY
LEVELS 4f LEVELS 4f

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4d 4d
4 4
4p 4p
4s 3d
4s
3d 3 3p
3 3p 3s
3s
2p
2
2p 2s
2
2s
The energy gap between successive
levels got increasingly smaller as the
levels got further from the nucleus.
1 1s 1 1s

Orbitals are not filled in numerical order because the principal energy levels get
closer together as you get further from the nucleus. This results in overlap of sub
levels. The first example occurs when the 4s orbital is filled before the 3d orbitals.
Auf Bau Principle
Paul Exclusion Principle
 ORDER OF FILLING ORBITALS
PRINCIPAL SUB LEVELS PRINCIPAL SUB LEVELS
ENERGY ENERGY
LEVELS 4f LEVELS 4f

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4d 4d HOW TO
4 4
4p 4p REMEMBER ...
4s 3d
THE FILLING ORDER
4s
3 3p 1s
3d
3 3p 3s 2s 2p
3s 3s 3p 3d
2p 4s 4p 4d 4f
2
2p 2s 5s 5p 5d 5f
2
2s 6s 6p 6d
7s 7p

1 1s 1 1s

Orbitals are not filled in numerical order because the principal energy levels get
closer together as you get further from the nucleus. This results in overlap of sub
levels. The first example occurs when the 4s orbital is filled before the 3d orbitals.
Spinning of electrons
 Each orbital can hold 2e-s in opposite directions

 When e-s are placed in a set of orbital of equal energy, they occupy them
singly and then pairing takes place

 e-s placed in opposite direction: both -vely charge & if placed in same
direction, they’d repel. In opposite direction they create a spin to reduce
repulsion

 Completely filled or half filled (i.e. one e- in each orbital) are more stable
(reduced repulsion)
 Sub – levels / sub-shells
 There are Energy sublevels within energy level
 All electrons in a particular subshell have the same energy
 Designated s, p, d, f ..
 Sublevel energy: s<p<d<f
 Maximum Number of electrons in each subshell is fixed
 Which is as follows ,

In s subshell ----- 2electrons

In p subshell ----- 6 electrons
In d subshell ----- 10 electrons
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
HYDROGEN
4d
4 1s1

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Hydrogen atoms have one
3d electron. This goes into a
4s vacant orbital in the lowest
available energy level.
3 3p

3s

‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
Principle
Principle
2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
LITHIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s1

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
1s orbitals can hold a
3d maximum of two electrons
4s so the third electron in a
lithium atom must go into
3 3p the next available orbital of
higher energy. This will be
3s
further from the nucleus in
the second principal
energy level.
2p
2 The second principal level
2s has two types of orbital (s
and p). An s orbital is lower
in energy than a p.

1 1s ‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
Principle
Principle
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
HELIUM
4d
4 1s2

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Every orbital can contain 2
3d electrons, provided the
4s electrons are spinning in
opposite directions. This is
3 3p based on...
3s PAULI’S EXCLUSION
PRINCIPLE
The two electrons in a
2p helium atom can both go in
2 the 1s orbital.
2s

1 1s ‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
Principle
Principle
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
BERYLLIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Beryllium atoms have four
3d electrons so the fourth
4s electron pairs up in the 2s
orbital. The 2s sub level is
3 3p now full.
3s

2p ‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
2 Principle
Principle
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
BORON
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p1

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
As the 2s sub level is now
3d full, the fifth electron goes
4s into one of the three p
orbitals in the 2p sub level.
3 3p The 2p orbitals are slightly
higher in energy than the
3s
2s orbital.

2p ‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
2 Principle
Principle
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
CARBON
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p2

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The next electron in
3d doesn’t pair up with the
4s one already there. This
would give rise to
3 3p repulsion between the
similarly charged species.
3s
Instead, it goes into
another p orbital which
means less repulsion,
2p lower energy and more
2 stability.
2s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
1 1s MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
NITROGEN
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p3

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Following Hund’s Rule,
3d the next electron will not
4s pair up so goes into a
vacant p orbital. All three
3 3p electrons are now
unpaired. This gives less
3s
repulsion, lower energy
and therefore more
stability.
2p
2
2s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
1 1s MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
OXYGEN
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p4

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
With all three orbitals half-
3d filled, the eighth electron in
4s an oxygen atom must now
pair up with one of the
3 3p electrons already there.
3s

‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
Principle
Principle
2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
FLUORINE
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p5

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The electrons continue to
3d pair up with those in the
4s half-filled orbitals.

3 3p

3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
NEON
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The electrons continue to
3d pair up with those in the
4s half-filled orbitals. The 2p
orbitals are now
3 3p completely filled and so is
the second principal
3s
energy level.
In the older system of
describing electronic
2p
2 configurations, this would
2s have been written as 2,8.

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
SODIUM - ARGON
4d
4 With the second principal
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS
4p energy level full, the next
electrons must go into the
3d
next highest level. The
4s third principal energy level
3 3p contains three types of
orbital; s, p and d.
3s The 3s and 3p orbitals are
filled in exactly the same
way as those in the 2s and
2p 2p sub levels.
2
2s ‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
Principle
Principle

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
SODIUM - ARGON
4d
4

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
4p
Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
3d
Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
4s
Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
3 3p
P 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
3s
S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
2p
2 Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
2s
Remember that the 3p
configurations follow Hund’s
1 Rule with the electrons
1s
remaining unpaired to give
more stability.
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
POTASSIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
In numerical terms one
3d would expect the 3d
4s orbitals to be filled next.

3 3p However, because the

principal energy levels get
3s closer together as you go
further from the nucleus
coupled with the splitting
into sub energy levels, the
2p
2 4s orbital is of a LOWER
2s ENERGY than the 3d
orbitals so gets filled first.

1 1s ‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
Principle
Principle
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
CALCIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
As expected, the next
3d electron pairs up to
4s complete a filled 4s orbital.

3 3p This explanation, using

sub levels fits in with the
3s position of potassium and
calcium in the Periodic
Table. All elements with an
-s1 electronic configuration
2p
2 are in Group I and all with
2s an -s2 configuration are in
Group II.

1 1s ‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
Principle
Principle
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
SCANDIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
With the lower energy 4s
3d orbital filled, the next
4s electrons can now fill the
3d orbitals. There are five d
3 3p orbitals. They are filled
according to Hund’s Rule -
3s
BUT WATCH OUT FOR
TWO SPECIAL CASES.
2p
2
2s HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
TITANIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The 3d orbitals are filled
3d according to Hund’s rule
4s so the next electron
doesn’t pair up but goes
3 3p into an empty orbital in the
same sub level.
3s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
2p MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
VANADIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The 3d orbitals are filled
3d according to Hund’s rule
4s so the next electron
doesn’t pair up but goes
3 3p into an empty orbital in the
same sub level.
3s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
2p MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
CHROMIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
One would expect the
3d configuration of chromium
4s atoms to end in 4s2 3d4.

3 3p To achieve a more stable

arrangement of lower
3s energy, one of the 4s
electrons is promoted into
the 3d to give six unpaired
electrons with lower
2p
2 repulsion.
2s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
1 1s MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
MANGANESE
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The new electron goes into
3d the 4s to restore its filled
4s state.

3 3p

3s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
2p MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
IRON
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Orbitals are filled
3d according to Hund’s Rule.
4s They continue to pair up.

3 3p

3s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
2p MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
COBALT
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d7

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Orbitals are filled
3d according to Hund’s Rule.
4s They continue to pair up.

3 3p

3s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
2p MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
NICKEL
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Orbitals are filled
3d according to Hund’s Rule.
4s They continue to pair up.

3 3p

3s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
2p MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
COPPER
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
One would expect the
3d configuration of chromium
4s atoms to end in 4s2 3d9.

3 3p To achieve a more stable

arrangement of lower
3s energy, one of the 4s
electrons is promoted into
the 3d.
2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
ZINC
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The electron goes into the
3d 4s to restore its filled state
4s and complete the 3d and
4s orbital filling.
3 3p

3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s
H 1s1
ELECTRONIC
He 1s2
CONFIGURATIONS
Li 1s2 2s1
OF ELEMENTS 1-30
Be 1s2 2s2
B 1s2 2s2 2p1
C 1s2 2s2 2p2
N 1s2 2s2 2p3
O
1s2 2s2 2p4
F
1s2 2s2 2p5
Ne
1s2 2s2 2p6
Na
Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
P 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
Sc
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
Ti
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1
V
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2
Cr
Mn
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3
Fe 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5
Co 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5
Ni 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d7
Zn 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10
 The electronic configuration of boron in box
form

• Each box represents an

atomic orbital.
• The boxes (orbitals) can
be arranged in order of
increasing energy from
bottom to top.
• An electron is represented
by an arrow.
Example: Chlorine
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF IONS
• Positive ions (cations) are formed by removing electrons from atoms
• Negative ions (anions) are formed by adding electrons to atoms
• Electrons are removed first from the highest occupied orbitals (EXC. transition metals)

SODIUM Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1 electron removed from the 3s orbital
Na+ 1s2 2s2 2p6

CHLORINE Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 1 electron added to the 3p orbital
Cl¯ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

FIRST ROW TRANSITION METALS

Despite being of lower energy and being filled first, electrons in the 4s orbital
are removed before any electrons in the 3d orbitals.

TITANIUM Ti 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2

Ti+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d2
Ti2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2
Ti3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1
Ti4+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Periodic Table and Electron Configuration

s1 s2 p 1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6
1
2
3 d1 - d10
4
5
6

f1 - f14
Periodic Table and Electron Configuration

 Use the order of filling indicated across

each period
Groups 1-2 = s level
Groups 3-8 = p level
Transition = d level
Lanthanides = f level
Shapes of orbitals – s orbital
s orbitals

1s 2s 3s
 Shapes of orbitals – p orbital

 This is the shape of p-orbital

Three p Orbitals

px pz py
Timberlake LecturePLUS 2000
 Concept Check !!!

b. Write down the electronic configuration of : Scandium – Sc 21

 PAST PAPER PRACTICE – P1

O/N 2004 – 5
2
3

M/J 2005 -4
4

M/J 2004 - 4
5

O/N 2006 – 3
6

M/J 2004 – 5
7
8

M/J 2006 – 3
IONISATION ENERGY
 WHAT IS IONISATION ENERGY?

Ionisation
IonisationEnergy
Energyis isthe
themeasure
measureof of the
theamount
amount
of
of energy
energyneeded
neededto toremove
removeelectrons
electronsfromfrom
atoms.
atoms. -

As
Aselectrons
electronsarearenegatively
negativelycharged
chargedand and
protons
protonsin inthe
thenucleus
nucleusare arepositively
positivelycharged,
charged,
there
therewill
will be
beananattraction
attractionbetween
betweenthem.
them. TheThe
greater
greaterthe
thepull
pull of
of the
thenucleus,
nucleus, the
theharder
harderitit will
will
be
betotopull
pull an
anelectron
electronawayawayfrom
from ananatom.
atom. Attraction between the
nucleus and an electron
 Definition: Ionisation energy ∆Hi

 The 1st ionisation energy of an element is the

energy needed to remove one electron from each
atom in one mole of gaseous atoms of the element
to form one mole of gaseous +1 ions.
 X(g) X+(g) + e-
 Write the equation for the 1st ionization of

1. Sodium
Na(g) Na+(g) + e-

2. Aluminum

Al(g) Al+(g) + e-
 Successive Ionisation Energies

Atoms with more than one electron can have them successively
removed.

2nd I.E. The energy required to remove one mole of electrons from
one mole of gaseous unipositive ions to form one mole of gaseous
dipositive ions.

e.g. Na+(g) Na2+(g) + e-

Al+(g) Al2+(g) + e-
 Successive Ionisation Energies

• Each successive I.E is higher than previous one, because as e-s are
removed, ratio of protons to electrons changes – increasing the attraction
between them

• Successive I.Es have large jump in their value when e-s removed
from different (lower) energy shell

• Ionisation energy increases with the removal of each electron. Each time an
electron is removed, effective nuclear charge increases, causing the
remaining electrons to be held more tightly and making the radius smaller.
 Ionisation energy and Group no.

 We can deduce group no. by checking when 1st big jump

of ionization energy value occurs.
Interpretation of graph
 Factors Affecting Ionisation Energies

 1. The size of the nuclear charge

 2. Distance of outer electrons from the nucleus
 3. Shielding effect
 4. Spin-pair repulsion
 Nuclear charge

• In general, ionisation energy increases as the proton number

increases.
 Lithium

Hydrogen Helium

1310 kJ mol-1 2370 kJ mol-1

519 kJ mol-1

The value for helium is higher than that for hydrogen because
there are now two protons in the nucleus. The nuclear charge is
greater so the pull on the outer electrons is larger. More energy will
be needed to pull an electron out of the atom
 Distance of outer electrons from the nucleus

• The further the outer electron shell is from the nucleus, the lower the ionisation energy.
 Shielding effect

• The ionisation energy is lower as the number of full electron shells between
the outer electrons and the nucleus increases.
Spin – pair repulsions
1. A full subshell stabilizes or makes an atom less reactive.
Thus, Be will have a higher ionisation energy.

2. For nitrogen the higher ionisation energy value is because

of half-filled p subshell.
Trends of ionisation energy across a period
1s

1s 2s 2p

1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s 2p
1s
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s
1s 2s 2p 3s
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s
1s 2s 2p 3s

ATOMIC NUMBER
12
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
HYDROGEN EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
Despite
Despite having
having aa nuclear
nuclear
charge
charge of of only
only 1+,
1+,
Hydrogen
Hydrogen has has aa relatively
relatively
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
high
high 1st
1st Ionisation
Ionisation Energy
Energy
as
as its
its electron
electron is
is closest
closest to
to
the
the nucleus
nucleus and
and has
has no
no
shielding.
shielding.

1s

ATOMIC NUMBER
1
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
HELIUM EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
Helium
Helium has
has aa much
much higher
higher
value
value because
because of of the
the extra
extra
proton
proton in
in the
the nucleus.
nucleus. The
The
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
additional
additional charge
charge provides
provides
aa stronger
stronger attraction
attraction for
for the
the
electrons
electrons making
making them
them
harder
harder to
to remove.
remove.

1s

ATOMIC NUMBER
2
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
LITHIUM EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
There
There isis aa substantial
substantial drop drop
in
in the
the value
value forfor Lithium.
Lithium.
This
This is
is because
because the the extra
extra
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
electron
electron hashas gone
gone into
into an
an
orbital
orbital in
in the
the next
next energy
energy
level.
level. Despite
Despite the the increased
increased
nuclear
nuclear charge,
charge, thethe
effective
effective nuclear
nuclear charge
charge is is
1s less
less because
because of of the
the
shielding
shielding effect
effect of
of filled
filled
inner
inner 1s
1s energy
energy level.
level. The
The
2s
2s electron
electron is is also
also further
further
away
away from
from thethe nucleus.
nucleus. ItIt isis
held
held less
less strongly
strongly andand
needs
needs less
less energy
energy for for
1s 2s
removal.
removal.

ATOMIC NUMBER
3
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
BERYLLIUM EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
The
The value
value for
for Beryllium
Beryllium is is
higher
higher than
than for
for Lithium
Lithium due
due
to
to the
the increased
increased nuclear
nuclear
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
charge.
charge. There
There isis no
no extra
extra
shielding.
shielding.

1s

1s 2s

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
4
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
BORON EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
There
There isis aa DROP
DROP in in the
the
value
value for
for Boron.
Boron. This
This isis
because
because the the extra
extra electron
electron
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
has
has gone
gone into
into one
one of
of the
the 2p
2p
orbitals.
orbitals. The
The increased
increased
shielding
shielding makes
makes the
the electron
electron
easier
easier toto remove
remove
1s
ItIt was
was evidence
evidence such such as
as this
this
that
that confirmed
confirmed the the existence
existence
of
of sub-shells.
sub-shells. IfIf there
there hadn’t
hadn’t
been
been any any sub-shell,
sub-shell, thethe
1s 2s
value
value would
would have
have beenbeen
higher
higher than
than that
that of of Beryllium.
Beryllium.
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
5
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
CARBON EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
The
The value
value increases
increases again
again
for
for Carbon
Carbon duedue to
to the
the
increased
increased nuclear
nuclear charge.
charge.
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
The
The extra
extra electron
electron does
does not
not
pair
pair up
up with
with the
the previous
previous oneone
in
in the
the same
same orbital
orbital but
but
occupies
occupies another
another of of the
the 2p
2p
1s
orbitals.
orbitals. This
This gives
gives aa lower
lower
energy
energy configuration
configuration
1s 2s 2p because
because there
there is
is less
less
repulsion
repulsion between
between the the
1s 2s
negatively
negatively charged
charged particles.
particles.
This
This is
is known
known as as Hund’s
Hund’s
1s 2s 2p Rule.
Rule.

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
6
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
NITROGEN EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
The
The value
value increases
increases again
again
for
for Nitrogen
Nitrogen due
due to
to the
the
increased
increased nuclear
nuclear charge.
charge.
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
As
As before,
before, the
the extra
extra electron
electron
goes
goes into
into the
the vacant
vacant 2p
2p
orbital.
orbital. There
There are
are now
now three
three
1s 2s 2p
unpaired
unpaired electrons.
electrons.
1s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
7
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
OXYGEN EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
There
There isis aa DROP
DROP in in the
the
value
value for
for Oxygen.
Oxygen. TheThe extra
extra
electron
electron hashas paired
paired up
up with
with
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
one
one of
of the
the electrons
electrons already
already
in
in one
one ofof the
the 2p
2p orbitals.
orbitals. The
The
repulsive
repulsive force
force beteen
beteen thethe
two
two paired-up
paired-up electrons
electrons
1s 2s 2p means
means thatthat less
less energy
energy is is
1s required
1s 2s 2p required to to remove
remove one
one of of
them.
them.
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
8
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
FLUORINE EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
The
The value
value increases
increases again
again
for
for Fluorine
Fluorine due
due to
to the
the
increased
increased nuclear
nuclear charge.
charge.
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
The
The 2p2p orbitals
orbitals are
are almost
almost
1s 2s 2p full.
full.

1s 2s 2p
1s
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
9
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
NEON EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION

1s 2s 2p The
The value
value increases
increases again
again
for
for Neon
Neon due
due toto the
the
increased
increased nuclear
nuclear charge.
charge.
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
The
The 2p
2p orbitals
orbitals are
are now
now full
full
1s 2s 2p so
so the
the next
next electron
electron in
in will
will
have
have to
to go
go into
into the
the higher
higher
1s 2s 2p
energy
energy 3s3s orbital.
orbital.
1s
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
10
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
SODIUM EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION

1s 2s 2p There
There isis aa substantial
substantial dropdrop in
in
the
the value
value forfor Sodium.
Sodium. This This is
is
because
because the the extra
extra electron
electron
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
has
has gone
gone into
into anan orbital
orbital in
in
1s 2s 2p the
the next
next energy
energy level.
level.
Despite
Despite the
the increased
increased
nuclear
nuclear charge,
charge, the the effective
effective
1s 2s 2p nuclear
nuclear charge
charge is is less
less
1s because
1s 2s 2p because of of the
the shielding
shielding
effect
effect of
of filled
filled inner
inner 1s,1s, 2s
2s
1s 2s 2p
and
and 2p
2p energy
energy levels.
levels.
1s 2s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s
1s 2s 2p 3s

ATOMIC NUMBER
11
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
MAGNESIUM EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION

1s 2s 2p The
The value
value for
for Magnesium
Magnesium is is
higher
higher than
than for
for Sodium
Sodium due
due
to
to the
the increased
increased nuclear
nuclear
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
charge.
charge. There
There isis no
no extra
extra
1s 2s 2p shielding.
shielding.
The
The trend
trend is
is similar
similar to
to that
that at
at
1s 2s 2p
the
the start
start of
of the
the 2nd
2nd period.
period.
1s
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s
1s 2s 2p 3s
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s
1s 2s 2p 3s

ATOMIC NUMBER
12
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy - PERIODS

1st Ionisation Energy shows a ‘general increase’ across a given period

 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy - PERIODS

1st
1stIonisation
IonisationEnergy
Energyvalues
valuesshow
showaaperiodic
periodic
trend.
trend. There is a ‘general increase’ acrossaa
There is a ‘general increase’ across
period
periodbefore
beforethethevalue
valuedrops
dropsdramatically
dramaticallyfor
for
2500 the start of another period.
the start of another period.
He
The
Thevalues
valuesget
getsmaller
smallerdown
downgroups
groupsasasthe
the
electron
electron removed comes from an orbitalfurther
removed comes from an orbital further
Ne
2000 from the nucleus - there is more shielding.
from the nucleus - there is more shielding.

1500
Ar
Kr
Xe
1000

500

0
Practice Questions
1.
O/N/2006 -2
3.

M/J/2010/11 -2
4.

M/J/2011/11 -1
5.

3.

O/N/2004 -34
6.

O/N/2011/12 -3