ENGL 1177

Research / Argument Essays

 Elements shared by both research or argument essays:
 a written discussion
 usually draws on two or more sources
 goes beyond critique of individual sources to develop
a thesis about a set of material
 demands curiosity, stamina, and judgment
 Imagine this module’s McWhorter article as
equivalent to argument you’ll do for your major
paper in this class:
 How do you select and organize all this
information into a unified whole?

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 Review: Purpose vs. Thesis
 Purpose - provides
 direction to research
 focus for thesis

 Thesis sharpens the focus by

 narrowing it
 formulating it in words of a declarative
statement

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 Research / Argument Essays
 make explicit the relationships you’ve
inferred among the sources consulted
 draw on skills we’ve already discussed &
used in ENGL 1177
 critical reading
 summary
 researching information on a specific topic
 selecting information from what you’ve
researched

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Overview: classifying research tasks
1. Analysis or examination - considers an issue in
detail
2. Review of scholarship - summary of what
scholars have said on the issue
3. Survey - information gathered by surveys or
questionnaires
4. Evaluation - you make critical judgments
5. Argument - you assemble evidence in support of
a claim you make
In the last 2 at-home ENGL 1177 essays, you may use
aspects of all of these tasks.
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 TYPES OF ARGUMENT ESSAYS
(this specific taxonomy: L. Behrens et. al, Writing & Reading Across the Disciplines, ch. 4)

1. Research Argument - aims to persuade the reader

to agree with your position on the topic, &
possibly promote a certain course of action (ENGL
1177 short argument essay)
2. Explanatory Research Paper - aims to present
facts objectively (ENGL 1177 research essay)
3. Comparison & contrast - aims to examine two
subjects in terms of each other
4. Personal Argument - aims to make a point about
human experience
4 types are not mutually exclusive; each can use elements of the
others.
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 (1) Research Argument
 persuasive in purpose
 thesis is a claim “about which reasonable
people could disagree”
 uses elements of argument
 claim
 support
 assumption (warrant)
 ENGL 1177 Short Argument Essay is this type,
with some elements of personal argument

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 Durable Planning Process for
an Argument Essay
(1) Analyze the question, your stance as speaker, &
assumptions.
(2) List arguments “for” and “against.”
(3) Identify a position.
(4) Write a thesis reflecting that position.
(5) Plan the structure of the body of your essay.
(6) Outline.
(7) Write.
(8) Revise.
*** see worksheet that’s part of the Short Argument (Persuasive)
Essay assignment on the course site ***
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 Find an Arguable Topic
 If you have to argue the topic (as in the ENGL 1177
short argument essay), five things are needed
1. choose an arguable topic
 already provided, for ENGL 1177 short argument essay
2. define the topic
 already provided, for ENGL 1177 short argument
essay, though you may define the topic further
3. take a clear position
4. make a convincing argument
5. acknowledge opposing views.

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 Topics Not Easily Argued
 Statements of fact
 Traffic is very congested in the Lower Mainland of BC in part because
the population is growing faster than the available public transit
system.
 Even though a “because” is included, this is still a fact that can be
verified by research and hence is not arguable.
 Personal taste
 No matter how bad the traffic, I prefer to travel by car.
 - not arguable because this is purely personal preference
 Claims of (religious) belief
 Premarital sex is wrong because [my religion’s teachings] forbid it
 not arguable because it doesn’t apply to those outside of the
religion discussed and doesn’t admit of rational proofs

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 Making an Arguable Claim
 Make a claim, not a slogan, by using a
“because” statement:
 slogan only - not arguable; no reason
listed:
 Langley needs light rail now!
 claim - includes a reason:
 Langley needs light rail in the next ten years
because it will decrease long-term transportation
costs for residents and the government

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 Possible Lines of Argument
 Argue by definition - from “the nature of the
thing” - e.g., “light rail,” “community rail”
 Argue from value - which is “good / better /
best” or “bad / worse / worst”
 Compare and contrast - but take a side!
 Argue from consequences - what will happen if
a certain course of action is followed / not
followed?
 Refute objections to your position - you’ll do
this anyway, but it can be a basic approach, too.

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Four Organizational Patterns You
Can Use in Argument
1. climactic
 begin with your second-most persuasive reason
 then present other reasons
 then end with the strongest reason
2. problem /solution
3. two (or more) sides of a controversy
4. comparison / contrast (often used a part of a
larger argumentative structure)
 take care - can be reductive, causing you to omit other
positions

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 Claim, support, warrant
 Claim - proposition or conclusion you’re trying
to prove
 Assumption /Warrant - underlying belief or
principle about some aspect of the world and
how it operates
 Support - fact or expert opinion as the most
common form of support for arguments in
academic writing
 but such logical or rational support is just one
component of effective argument -- just one of three
types of argumentative appeal

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Organizing Support for Claims
 when citing evidence, use a mix of
 summary
 paraphrase
 quotation
 when considering appeals, use
 various types of evidence (logos)
 motivational appeals (ethos, pathos)
 avoid fallacies, or errors in reasoning
 choose an effective organizational pattern (order
of ideas)

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 Support for Claims: 3 Basic
Argumentative Appeals
 from Aristotle, 3rd c. BC Greek philosopher
 three ways to influence your audience
 logos - the appeal of reason; logical argument
 ethos - the appeal of the speaker’s credibility
 pathos - the appeal of emotion
 a strong persuasive discourse does not rely on
logos alone, although logos is the main appeal
used in academic discourse.
 see web links on the course site (NOTE: we’ll go
into detail about fallacies later on)

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 LOGOS
 rational appeal; appeal to reason
 supplying appropriate evidence
 presenting the evidence in a logical
sequence
 Two types of logical argument
 deductive - from general to specific
 inductive - from specific to general

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 Deductive Reasoning
1. begins with a generalization…
2. …then proceeds to a specific case-related
to that generalization…
3. …from which follows a conclusion.

 In formal logic, the three-part argument

is called a syllogism.

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 Deduction, cont.
 Example:
 All men are mortal (generalization)
 Socrates is a man (specific case)

 Therefore, Socrates is mortal (conclusion

about the specific case)
 Common flaws in syllogisms:
 faulty / missing generalization
 faulty placement of terms

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 Syllogisms, cont.
 All men are mortal
 Socrates is mortal
 Therefore, Socrates is a man

 ____________________
 Jo’s been working here a long time
 Therefore, she should be promoted

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 Inductive Reasoning
 begins with a specific piece of evidence
 draws conclusion from the evidence,
which can include
 research
 statistics
 testimony of experts

 evidence may be solid, but the conclusion

following from it may not be valid

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 ETHOS
 also called ethical appeal
 based not on the ethical rationale for the subject
being discussed
 based on the ethical nature -- the credibility --
of the speaker
 an effective persuasive speaker demonstrates
 good character
 good sense
 (for some arguments) professional or personal
qualifications sufficient to recommend a specific
course of action

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 ETHOS, cont.
 Ethos appeals to the values of the speaker’s
audience but doesn’t necessarily advocate the
“best” values.
 If the speaker wants to persuade a group of, for
example, neo-Nazis, s/he would appeal to the
values of that group.
 The use of “ethos”is
 usually prominent in the opening and at the end of a
discourse
 often signaled by the use of first-person plural
pronouns (we, us, our)

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 PATHOS
 appeal to emotions
 a legitimate appeal in many cases, but
often not in an academic or professional
essay
 becomes problematic when it is the main
or only appeal used
 can degenerate very easily into fallacious
arguments (ad hominem attacks, etc.)

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 Counter-arguments
 Your argument will be stronger if you can
acknowledge and refute or concede opposing
arguments
 counterargument: presenting an argument
against your claim and showing how the
opposing argument is flawed or weak
 concession - instead of refuting an opposing
argument, you admit that it has some validity;
this admission can underscore your credibility
as a fair-minded presenter.

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 (2) Explanatory Research Essay
 can be part of an argumentative paper or can
stand on its own
 on its own, is modest in purpose:
 stresses source material, not your interpretation
 aims to inform, not persuade
 presents subject in a clear, orderly way
 Purpose of a stand-alone explanatory synthesis
is different from that of an argumentative one;
thesis will be different, too.
 NOTE: your ENGL 1177 research paper is
mainly an explanatory synthesis
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Example: Same Sources, Two Theses
 argumentative (persuasive) thesis:
 “The growth of Wal-Marts in the Vancouver
area is causing the community to lose part of its
distinctive character.”
 explanatory thesis: (& needs focus):
 “Those who write about Wal-Mart are divided in
their assessment of its impact on a
neighbourhood.”

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 Explanatory Research Essay: Thesis

 provides direction to research and focus for your

paper
 sharpens focus by narrowing the topic, being
specific; e.g.:
 before: “Those who write about Wal-Mart are divided in
their assessment of its impact on a neighbourhood.”
 after: “Those who report on consumer trends and habits
are divided in their assessments of Wal-Mart’s impact on a
neighbourhood’s economic and social development.

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 Explanatory Research Essay: Sources
 In an explanatory synthesis, you will
 include but go beyond summarizing
your sources
 use sources selectively, to fit into an
overall organizational plan
 probably read more sources than you
finally use in your paper

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 Explanatory Essays: Organizing
 many organizational patterns possible; e.g.:
 by category (geography; discipline; size)
 by least-to-most important or vice-versa
 Choose a pattern relevant to the reader - not as
thoughts occur to you as the researcher / writer
 Your thesis can help suggest structure:
 “Analysts of consumer trends are divided on assessments
of Wal-Mart’s economic impact and social influence.”
 economic and social; diff, subcategories
 varying types of effects

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(3) Comparison-Contrast Research
Essay
 examines two or more subjects or sources
in terms of each other.
 comparison considering
similarities
 contrast considering differences
 “comparison” is short-form for both
processes, since one implies the other
 NOTE: Comparisons are often seen as part of
longer research essays.
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 2 options for organizing a
comparison
by subject / source by criteria
 say everything you have  compare things one
to say about one subject aspect at a time
before discussing the
other
 useful when developing  better for essays over
only a few main points, 500 words, and for
without extensive quotes detailed comparisons
or evidence

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 Examples: Wal-Mart
by subject / source by criteria
 Wal-Mart  Price

 price of goods  Wal-Mart

 type of jobs  Locally Owned Stores
 community development  Type of Jobs
 Locally Owned Stores  Wal-Mart
 price of goods
 Locally Owned Stores
 type of jobs  Comm’ty Development
 community development  Wal-Mart
 Locally Owned Stores

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 (4) Personal Argument
 often uses no academic sources, relying mainly
on writer’s personal experience.
 can be effective when “based on experience
coupled with careful observation”
 doesn’t “provide definitive evidence” but can
convince through emotional appeal and
credibility of the writer.
 ENGL 1177 Short Argument (Persuasive) Essay
is in part a personal argument.

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