Unit 10

Ecology and conservation of natural

resources
Biology

1
1. Definition of ecological terms and Basic concepts of Ecology
• What is ecology?
• Coined from Greek word 'oikos' meaning 'house' or 'a place to live' and 'logos'
meaning study
• Coined by Ernest Haeckel
• Living things depend on each other and on the non-living components of the
environment for survival
• Is the study of the relationship of living organisms among themselves and with
the non-living components of the environment
• Working definition:
The study of the processes regulating the distribution & abundance of
organisms & their interaction among each other and their environment

2
 Ecology cont’d
• Ecology deals with relationships between;
organisms and their physical environments
organisms of the same species
organisms of different species and
organisms and the fluxes of matter and energy through biological
systems
• Ecologists፡
study these interactions in order to understand the abundance and
diversity of life within Earth's ecosystems

3
Ecology cont’d

• Major principles of ecology:

1. Protection of species and species subdivisions will conserve genetic diversity
(Population viability)
2. Maintaining habitat is fundamental for the conservation of species
3. All things are connected but the nature and strength of those connections vary

4
Ecological terminologies and their definitions

• Abiotic: all non-living components in the biosphere (air, water, soil)

• Biotic: all the living components in the biosphere (animals, plants, microbes)
• Autotrophic: organism able to produce their own food using abiotic components
• Heterotrophic: organism unable to produce their own food
• Ecosystem: a biological community plus all of the abiotic factors influencing that
community
• Biome: sub-division of the biosphere, based on the specific climate of each
region, where the climate determines the unique plant and animal species that live
and are adapted to survive in a region
• Biosphere: it is the global sum of all ecosystems

5
Ecological terminologies
• Saprophytic organisms: organisms that live on by decomposing dead organic
matters
• Scavengers: animals that eat what is left over by predators
• Photosynthesis: a process where plants use sunlight energy, water and CO2 from
the air, to produce organic compounds
• Vegetation: the plant life that is found in a biome
• Organism: fundamental unit of ecology
• No smaller unit in biology has an independent life in the environment
• Population: A group of organisms consisting of a number of similar organisms that
live in defined area and interact with each other
• Community: A group of organisms consisting of a number of different species that
live in an area and interact with each other
6
Hierarchical structure of ecological systems

7
8.1. Aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems

• A natural ecosystem is an assemblage of plants and animals which functions as a

unit and is capable of maintaining its identity such as forest, grassland, an estuary
• A natural ecosystem is totally dependent on solar energy
• There are two main categories of ecosystems
1. Aquatic and
2. Terrestrial ecosystem

8
1.2. Energy flow through ecosystems
• The defining characteristics of ecosystems
Energy flow and loss as heat
Material (nutrient) cycling
• Materials are always being ‘moved around’ within an ecosystem
through
Feeding
Excretion
Respiration and breathing
Decomposition
• What is a waste product to one organism becomes a vital nutrient to
another.
All organisms in the ecosystem are interdependent and interact
with their physical environment.
9
 Energy cont’d
• The ultimate source of energy in ecosystems is the sun
• Energy from the source has been transferred across the
ecosystems through food chains
eventually lost from the ecosystem as heat and must be
replaced as light
The nutrients just keep on being recycled

10
 Energy cont’d
• Food chains:
• Successive stage of feeding whereby
energy is transferred across the trophic
levels
• Are not isolated sequences, but are
interconnected with each other
• Cyclic interdependence of trophic levels
• Each step of the food web is called a
trophic level
• 20 to 30% of NPP is consumed by the
herbivores
• These trophic levels together form the
ecological pyramid

11
Energy cont’d
• Basically two types of food chains are recognized:
1. Grazing food chain and
2. Detritus food chain
1. Grazing food chain:
Beginning with autotrophs
Green plants are its base
Directly dependent on an influx of solar radiation
Very significant from energy standpoint
Examples are:
Aquatic food chain: Phytoplanktons are the base
Terrestrial food chain: Grasses are the base

12
2. Detritus food chain
• Beginning with dead organic matter
• Detritus:
The organic wastes, exudates and dead matter derived from the
grazing food chain
The energy contained in this detritus is not lost to the ecosystem
as a whole
Detritivores: Organisms that make use of the detritus
Represents an exceedingly important component in the energy
flow of an ecosystem
Energy flow may exceed that of the grazer food chain
Decomposers complete the food chain
Decomposers: organisms that turn organic
wastes inorganic materials
13
 Terrestrial and aquatic food chain

14
The food web
• It:
Is an interlocking pattern/chains of food chains in an ecosystem
Is all of the interconnected and overlapping food chains in
an ecosystem
Each living thing in an ecosystem is part of multiple food chains.
Maintains the stability of the ecosystem
Reveals species interactions and community structure, and
understanding the dynamics of energy transfer in an ecosystem.
Represents feeding relationships within a community
The feeding interactions represented by the food web may have
profound effects on species richness of community, and ecosystem
productivity and stability
Human activities have impacted the stability of the food web
15
Food web

16
8.2 Cycling of Materials (Nutrients)
• Defined as “the cyclic pathway by which nutrients pass-through, in
order to be recycled and reutilized. The pathway comprises cells,
organisms, community and ecosystem.”
• In the process, nutrients get absorbed, transferred, released and
reabsorbed.
• Its rate depends on various biotic, physical and chemical factors.
• These are the water cycle, the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the
energy cycle
• All the functions of the ecosystem are in some way related to the
growth and regeneration of its plant and animal species
• These processes depend on energy from sunlight

17
Cont’d
• How nutrient cycling differs from energy flow?
Cyclic process that encompasses the movement of nutrients from
the physical environment to living organisms and back to the
environment.
Nutrients are present on the earth where they are recycled,
transformed into different forms and reutilized.
Involves both biotic and abiotic components
• Energy flow
Transfer of energy from one trophic level to another in the food
chain and food web.
It is unidirectional and energy is lost from one trophic level to
another in the form of heat.
Sunlight is the ultimate energy source
18
 The water cycle
• Water never leaves the Earth.
• The process make sure that Water gets
recycled over
and over again
• In the process water changes its states
• Is the continuous recycling of water on
earth; from the oceans, up to the sky
and down to land, to be transported
back to the oceans and sky again.

19
 The water cycle cont’d
• Major processes of the water cycle
1. Transpiration (The evaporation of water from plants)
 amount of water lost by a plant depends on its size, the surrounding
light intensity, temperature, humidity, wind speed, and soil water
supply.
2. Evaporation (conversion of water from a liquid to a gas)
critical component of the water cycle driven by solar energy.
3. Condensation
The transformation of water vapor back into liquid water by cooling
4. Precipitation
major component of weather and of the water cycle
5. Accumulation
20
The water cycle cont’d

21
 The Carbon cycle
• Initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier and
popularized by Humphrey Davy
• The same carbon atoms are used repeatedly on earth, cycling
between the earth and the atmosphere
• Carbon:
The building block (the chemical backbone) of all organisms
Regulate the Earth’s temperature, make up the food that
sustains us, and provide energy that fuels our economy.
Different storage reservoirs
Carbon sink: more carbon enters a pool than leaves it
Carbon source: more carbon leaves a pool than enters
Oceans contain earth’s largest store of carbon.
• CO2 is a major player in the Earth’s energy balance 22
Carbon cycle cont’d

• The main processes involved in carbon cycle are:

1. Photosynthesis: the process of fixing carbon atoms into organic compounds
2. Feeding and assimilation: assimilation of organic carbon into organisms body.
3. Respiration: liberation of inorganic CO2 from organic compounds
4. Fossilisation: Storage of carbon in the form of fossil fuels
5. Combustion: fossil fuels are burned, releasing CO2 into the atmosphere

23
• The carbon cycle

24
Nitrogen cycle
• 78% of the air is nitrogen
• Nitrogen is found in many biological compounds (proteins, amino
acids, DNA, RNA and ATP)
• Hence, without nitrogen, organisms could not synthesize:
their genetic material (DNA)
their principal structural materials (proteins)
their principal energy transfer molecule (ATP)
• Forms of nitrogen
Organic (Urea, CO(NH2)2)
Inorganic forms
Ammonia (NH3), Ammonium (NH4)
Nitrate (NO3), Nitrite (NO2)
Atmospheric Dinitrogen (N2)
25
Nitrogen cycle cont’d
• Major transformations of nitrogen cycle
The transformation carried out through both biological and
physical processes
The transformation process consists of:
A. Nitrogen Fixation
B. Assimilation
C. Ammonification/mineralization
D. Nitrification
E. Denitrification

26
 A. Nitrogen Fixation

• It is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into reactive

compounds such as ammonia (NH3) and nitrate (NO3-)
• The breaking of the bonds between the nitrogen atoms requires a
great deal of energy and occurs naturally in two primary ways:
1. Abiotic (physicochemical) Fixation:
• Lightening and electrical discharge drives the process and
accounts for 10% of the nitrate entering the nitrogen cycle

N2 + O2 2NO
2NO +O2 2NO2
2NO2 +O N2O5
N2O5 + H2O 2HNO3
27
 Fixation cont’d
2. Biological fixation
• Energy intensive process :
N2 + 8H+ + 8e- + 16 ATP = 2NH3 + H2 + 16ADP + 16 Pi
• Accomplished by:
Symbiotic bacteria (Rhizobium) in legumes such as alfalfa,
clover, soy beans, chick pea
Blue green algae (Anabaena)
Free-living bacteria (Rhodospirillium)
Anaerobic bacteria (Clostridium)
Require an enzyme called nitrogenase
3. Industrial nitrogen fixation
• Under great pressure and at a temperature of 600 0C, with the use of
Iron as a catalyst to form ammonia in the Haber-Bosch process
28
 B. Nitrification
• Conversion of ammonia in soil to nitrite ions and finally to nitrate ions
that are easily used by plants (aerobic bacteria)
• Responsible bacteria’s are:
Nitrosomonas: convert ammonia to nitrites (NO2-)
Nitrobacter: Convert nitrite to nitrate (NO3)
C. Assimilation
• Inorganic forms of nitrogen most commonly nitrates are assimilated
by plants through root hairs
• The assimilated nitrogen is processed and transfer through different
trophic levels by the food chain process

29
 D. Ammonification

• A host of decomposing microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi,

break down nitrogenous wastes and organic matter found in dead
animals, plants and organic wastes and convert it into inorganic
ammonia for absorption by plants as ammonium ions
• Decomposition rates affect the level of nutrients available to primary
producers
• The microorganisms involved are actinomycetes, Bacilli (ramosus,
vulgaris)

30
 E. Denitrification
• It is the process by which nitrates are reduced to gaseous nitrogen (N2)
and lost to the atmosphere
• Farmers with waterlogged fields and soils that have high clay content
are especially vulnerable to nitrogen losses due to Denitrification
• This decreases the total amount of nitrogen available to the plants, and,
therefore, to all the other organisms also.
• This process occurs by facultative anaerobes in anaerobic
environments
Thiobacillus denitrificants
Micrococcus denitrificants
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
• 2NO3 2NO2- 2NO N2O N2

31
Nitrogen cycle

32
The nitrogen cycle with all its processes
N2

N2O NH4 NO2

R-NH2

NO

NO2 NO3
33
 The Oxygen Cycle

• One of the main component of the earth atmosphere

• Is a biogeochemical cycle like others
The movement of matters through the biotic and abiotic spheres
of the ecosystems
• Ecological importance of oxygen
Without oxygen at the bottom of the water body, anaerobic
bacteria produce acids that not only increase acidity but also,
Cause massive release of phosphorus and nitrogen
The bacteria also cause other toxic gases (H2S, NH3, CH4)
Cause bad odor
Large accumulation of organic sediment due to lack of
decomposition

34
Oxygen cont’d

• Biological importance of oxygen

• It is the final electron acceptor
during aerobic respiration and
• Helps in the decomposition of
organic matters
• Two important processes in the
cycle are:

35
 The Phosphorus cycle
• It is the circulation of phosphorous among the rocks, soils, water, and
all organisms of the earth
• Is present always in organisms in the form of phosphates (PO4-3) and
dissolved in water or in rocks
• It never makes its way into the atmosphere due to its molecular
weight
• An important constituent of cell membranes, nucleic acids & ATP,
bones, teeth and shells
• Major processes in the cycle are:
• Rocks start out the cycle by weathering
• Absorbed and assimilated by plants
• Decomposition of organic matters returns the phosphate
• Fungi obtain it through symbiotic (Mycorrhizal) association with
plant roots
36
 Phosphorus cont’d
• It differs from other biogeochemical cycles because it does not include
a gas phase and is one of the slowest processes
• It is one of the most limiting elements in the ecological system.
• Two types of animals play a unique role in its cycle
1. Humans during mining
Accelerate fertilizers production and contribute in the cycle
May increase the local abundance of phosphate and in turn cause
overgrowth of algae (eutrophication)
2. Marine birds
Prey on fish from oceans and defecates phosphorus containing
guano on land
Terrestrial defecation return phosphorous from the ocean to the
land
37
Phosphorus cycle cont’d

• The availability of P in an ecosystem

is restricted by its rate of release of the
element during weathering
• The release of P from apatite (mineral
with significant P content) dissolution
is a key control on ecosystem
productivity

38
Major transformations in Phosphorus cycle

1. Mineralization 3. Precipitation
• Its solubility is controlled by the
• Organic phosphorus
pH and the presence of Ca2+,
compounds are converted Mg2+, Fe3+ and AL3+
into orthophosphates by
microbes using an enzyme • Insoluble molecules are formed
called phosphatase such as Hydroxyapatite,
Vivianite
4. Microbial solubilization
2. Assimilation • Through the metabolism of
• Absorb and assimilate into microbes and involve enzymes
various structures along • Produce CO2 that lower the pH
with storing it in the form and which in turn liberate
of polyphosphates in orthophosphate from
special granules • Produce H2S that interact with
iron phosphate and liberate PO4 39
Ecological succession
• A gradual, orderly and progressive change in a community structure over time is called succession

• Two stages of succession

1. Primary succession: occurs on the bare land and the first community that occupies the area are
called the pioneer community.

2. Secondary succession
• occurs where original community has been destroyed by some factors like fire, earth quake or
deforestation
• much quicker than primary successions because:
• the succession is not starting from bare rock/open water
• there is undamaged seed bank of many of the climax plant types
• the soil is already present
40
Ecological succession
• The various stages in a succession are called seres.
• The final, most complex, state of a succession is the climax community.
• Succession can takes place from rock (xerosere) or water (hydrosere)

• The following trends occur in any succession:

The total biomass of the community increases

The species diversity increases

The number of ecological niches increase

Food webs become more complex

The community becomes more stable can accommodate small changes

41
 Conservation of natural resources and biodiversity
• Biodiversity:
The wealth of species in terms of richness and diversity in a
given area
Considered at three levels:
Genetic, Species and Ecosystem
Not distributed evenly on earth
Highest in the tropics
Degree of biodiversity in a given area is determined by
calculating its index
Higher diversity index suggests:
More successful species are available
More ecological niches are available
Environmental change is less likely to damage the ecosystem
More stable ecosystem
42
 Principles of conservation of natural resources
• Is about saving life on earth in all its forms and keeping natural
ecosystems healthy and functioning
• It incorporates sustainable use, recovery and enhancement,
maintenance of biodiversity
• Core principles:
Every future generation has the right to enjoy and make use of the
biological resource of the planet
The principle should be developed at a local level and be adapted
to local ecosystems, cultures, values and social and economic
conditions
• Two methods of biodiversity conservation
1. In-situ (Conservation done at organisms natural habitat)
2. Ex-situ (Conservation outside the natural habitat)
43
 Conservation cont’d
• The loss of biodiversity is faster than ever before
• Loss of biodiversity is cause by:
1. Direct drivers: HIPO
• Habitat degradation
• Introduction of invasive species
• Pollution
• Over-exploitation
2. Indirect drivers: Population rise, policy failures
• Sustainable use of resources, especially the genetic resources for food and
agriculture is vital for the next generation
It enhances the resilience of communities and ecosystems

44
 Benefits or services of biodiversity
1. Utilitarian or provisional services
Contribute to our material well-being
2. Regulating services
Climate regulation by sequestering CO2 (tropical forests remove
from the atmosphere 4.8 billion tones of CO2 a year)
Water quality, pollution control by decomposition, soil
formation, and pollination
3. Ethical and moral services
Every organism has an intent right to exist regardless of its
importance
4. Aesthetic value

45
 What should be done?
• Implement efficient resource-use strategies that conserve soil, water,
and biodiversity enhances ecological services and reduce pressure on
ecosystems
• Introduce resource efficient mechanized farming practice and control
on the use of resources like fertilizers & other inputs
• Implement reforestation programs and reduce the rate of deforestation
which helps to mitigate the impact of climate change and contribute to
sustainability through soil formation, water purification & pollination
• Promoting responsible and effective governance mechanisms that
ensures accountability, equity, transparency and trust
• Introduce a participatory conservation program that involve all key
stakeholders
• Establish an enabling institutional & policy environment that provides
the right incentives and other technical support
46