ELECTROSTATICS - IV

- Capacitance and Van de Graaff

Generato
1. Behaviour of Conductors in Electrostatic Field
r
2. Electrical Capacitance
3. Principle of Capacitance
4. Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor
5. Series and Parallel Combination of Capacitors
6. Energy Stored in a Capacitor and Energy Density
7. Energy Stored in Series and Parallel Combination of Capacitors
8. Loss of Energy on Sharing Charges Between Two Capacitors
9. Polar and Non-polar Molecules
10. Polarization of a Dielectric
11. Polarizing Vector and Dielectric Strength
12. Parallel Plate Capacitor with a Dielectric Slab
Behaviour of Conductors in the Electrostatic Field:
1. Net electric field intensity in the interior of a
E0
conductor is zero.
When a conductor is placed in an electrostatic
field, the charges (free electrons) drift EP
towards the positive plate leaving the + ve
core behind. At an equilibrium, the
electric field due to the polarisation
becomes equal to the applied field. Enet = 0
So, the net electrostatic field inside the
conductor is zero.
2. Electric field just outside the charged
conductor is perpendicular to the surface of
the conductor.
E cos θ
Suppose the electric field is acting at an angle
other than 90°, then there will be a LE
SIB
component E cos θ acting along the tangent S
at that point to the surface which will tend T PO E θ n
to accelerate the charge on the surface NO
leading to ‘surface current’. But there •+q
is no surface current in electrostatics.
So, θ = 90° and cos 90° = 0.
3. Net charge in the interior of a conductor is
zero.
The charges are temporarily separated. The
total charge of the system is zero.
q
ΦE = E . dS = ε
0
S
Since E = 0 in the interior of the conductor,
therefore q = 0.
4.Charge always resides on the surface of a
conductor.
Suppose a conductor is given some excess
charge q. Construct a Gaussian surface just q q
inside the conductor.
Since E = 0 in the interior of the conductor,
therefore q = 0 inside the conductor. q=0

5.Electric potential is constant for the entire

conductor.
dV = - E . dr
Since E = 0 in the interior of the conductor,
therefore dV = 0. i.e. V = constant
 6. Surface charge distribution may be
different q
at different points.
σ=
S
σmin σmax
Every conductor is an equipotential volume (three- dimensional)
rather than just an equipotential surface (two- dimensional).
Electrical Capacitance:
The measure of the ability of a conductor to store charges is known as
capacitance or capacity (old name).
q

q αV or q =CV or
C= V
If V = 1
volt,
Capacitance then C =isq defined as the charge required to raise its
of a conductor
potential through one unit.
SI Unit of capacitance is ‘farad’ (F). Symbol of capacitance:
Capacitance is said to be 1 farad when 1 coulomb of charge raises the
potential of conductor by 1 volt.
Since 1 coulomb is the big amount of charge, the capacitance will be usually
in the range of milli farad, micro farad, nano farad or pico farad.
Capacitance of an Isolated Spherical Conductor:
Let a charge q be given to the sphere which
is assumed to be concentrated at the centre.
Potential at any point on the surface is
r
q O+q
•
V =
4πε0 r
q
C=
V

C = 4πε0
r
1. Capacitance of a spherical conductor is directly proportional to its radius.
2. The above equation is true for conducting spheres, hollow or solid.
3. IF the sphere is in a medium, then C = 4πε0εr r.

4. Capacitance of the earth is 711 μF.

Principle of Capacitance:
A B
Step 1: Plate A is positively charged and B is neutral.
Step 2: When a neutral plate B is brought near A,
charges are induced on B such that the side near A is
negative and the other side is positive.
The potential of the system of A and B in step 1 and 2
remains the same because the potential due to positive
and negative charges on B cancel out. Potential = V
Step 3: When the farther side of B is earthed the
positive charges on B get neutralised and B is left only
with negative charges. A B
Now, the net potential of the system decreases due to
the sum of positive potential on A and negative
potential on B.
To increase the potential to the same value as was in
step 2, an additional amount of charges can be given to
plate A.
Potential = V
This means, the capacity of storing charges on A
increases. Potential E

The system so formed is called a ‘capacitor’. decreases to

Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitor:
Parallel plate capacitor is an arrangement of two
parallel conducting plates of equal area σ E σ
separated by air medium or any other insulating
medium such as paper, mica, glass, wood, A A
ceramic, etc.
σ
d
V = E d = ε0
qd
or V=
A ε0

q A ε0
But C= C= d
V d

If the space between the plates is filled with dielectric medium of

relative permittivity ε r, then
A ε0 εr
C=
d
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is
(i) directly proportional to the area of the
plates and
(ii) inversely proportional to the distance of separation between them.
Series Combination of Capacitors:
C1 C2 C3
In series combination,
q q q
i) Charge is same in each capacitor
ii) Potential is distributed in inverse V1 V2 V3
proportion to capacitances

i.e. V = V 1 + V2 + V3 V
q q q q
, V1 = , V2 = and V3 =
But V = C C1 C2 C3
q q q q (where C is the equivalent capacitance or
+ + effective capacitance or net capacitance or
C = C1 C2 C3
total capacitance)
n
1 1 1 1 1 1
or + + =
C = C1 C2 C3 C Ci
∑
i=
1
The reciprocal of the effective capacitance is the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual capacitances.
Note: The effective capacitance in series combination is less than the least
of all the individual capacitances.
Parallel Combination of Capacitors: C1
In parallel combination, V q1

i) Potential is same across each capacitor

ii) Charge is distributed in direct proportion to C2
capacitances V q2

i.e. q = q1 + q2 + q3

But C3
q 1 = C1 V , q 2 = C2 V , q 3 = C3 V and q = C q3
V
V
C V = C1V + C2 V + C3 V (where C is the equivalent
capacitance)

n
or C = C 1 + C2 + C3 V
C=
∑ Ci
i=1
The effective capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitances.
Note: The effective capacitance in parallel combination is larger than
the largest of all the individual capacitances.
Energy Stored in a Capacitor:
The process of charging a capacitor is
equivalent to transferring charges from one
plate to the other of the capacitor.
The moment charging starts, there is a potential
difference between the plates. Therefore, to
transfer charges against the potential difference
some work is to be done. This work is
stored as electrostatic potential energy in the
capacitor.
If dq be the charge transferred against the
potential difference V, then work done is
dU = dW = V dq V
=q dq
C
The total work done ( energy) to transfer charge q
is
q
q 1 q2 1 1
U= dq or U= or U= C V2 or U = qV
C 2 C 2 2
0
Energy Density:
1 A ε0
U= CV 2 But C= and V=Ed
2 d
1 U 1 1
U= ε0 Ad E2 or = ε0 E2 or U= ε0 E2
2 Ad 2 2

SI unit of energy density is J m-3.

Energy density is generalised as energy per unit volume of the field.

Energy Stored in a Series Combination of Capacitors:

1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ………. +
C = C1 C2 C3 Cn

1 q2 1 1
U= U= 1 + 1 + + ]
2 C 2 q 2
[ 1C C2 C 3 Cn
…
1 …
U = U1 + U2 + U3 + ………. + Un …
. sum of
The total energy stored in the system is the
+
energy stored in the individual capacitors.
Energy Stored in a Parallel Combination of Capacitors:
C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ……….. + Cn

1 1
U= CV 2
U= ( C1 + C2 + C3 + ……….. + Cn )
V2
2 2

U = U1 + U2 + U3 + ………. + Un
The total energy stored in the system is the sum of energy stored in the
individual capacitors.

Loss of Energy on Sharing of Charges between the Capacitors in

Parallel:
Consider two capacitors of capacitances C1, C2, charges q1, q2 and potentials
V1,V2.

Total charge after sharing = Total charge before sharing (C1 + C2) V = C1 V1 + C2 V2

C1 V1 + C2 V2

V=
C1 + C2
The total energy before sharing is

1 1
Ui = C1 V 12 + C2 V2 2
2 2
The total energy after sharing is

1
Uf = (C1 + C2) V2
2

C1 C2 (V1 – V2)2
Ui– Uf =
2 (C1 + C2)

Ui – Uf >0 or Ui > Uf

Therefore, there is some loss of energy when two charged capacitors

are connected together.
The loss of energy appears as heat and the wire connecting the two
capacitors may become hot.
Polar Molecules:
A molecule in which the centre of positive charges does O
not coincide with the centre of negative charges is called
a polar molecule.
105°
Polar molecule does not have symmetrical shape. p
H H
Eg. H Cl, H2 O, N H3, C O 2, alcohol, etc.
Effect of Electric Field on Polar Molecules:
E=0 E

p=0 p
In the absence of When electric field is applied, the
external electric dipoles orient themselves in a
field, the regular fashion and hence dipole
permanent moment is induced. Complete
dipoles of the allignment is not possible due to
molecules orient thermal agitation.
Non - polar Molecules:
A molecule in which the centre of positive charges coincides with the centre of
negative charges is called a non-polar molecule.
Non-polar molecule has symmetrical shape. Eg. N2 , C H4, O2, C6 H6, etc.

Effect of Electric Field on Non-polar Molecules:

E=0 E

p=0 p
In the When electric field is applied, the positive
absence of charges are pushed in the direction of electric
external field and the electrons are pulled in the
electric field, direction opposite to the electric field. Due to
separation of effective centres of positive
the effective and negative charges, dipole is formed.
positive and
Dielectrics:
Generally, a non-conducting medium or insulator is called a ‘dielectric’.
Precisely, the non-conducting materials in which induced charges are produced
on their faces on the application of electric fields are called dielectrics.
Eg. Air, H2, glass, mica, paraffin wax, transformer oil, etc.
Polarization of Dielectrics:
When a non-polar dielectric slab is
subjected to an electric field, dipoles
are induced due to separation of
effective positive and negative centres.
E0 is the applied field and Ep is the
induced field in the dielectric.
The net field is EN = E0 – Ep EE=0 0 Ep

i.e. the field is reduced when a

dielectric slab is introduced.
The dielectric constant is given by
E0
K=
E0 - Ep
Polarization Vector:
The polarization vector measures the degree of polarization of the dielectric.
It is defined as the dipole moment of the unit volume of the polarized
dielectric.
If n is the number
polarization vectorofisatoms or molecules per unit volume of the dielectric, then
P=np
SI unit of polarization vector is C m-2.

Dielectric Dielectric strength (kV /

Dielectric Strength: mm)
Dielectric strength is the maximum Vacuum ∞ 0.8 – 1
value of the electric field intensity
Air 4–8
that can be applied to the dielectric
without its electric break down. Porcelain 14

Its SI unit is V m-1. Pyrex 14 – 16

Paper 21
Its practical unit is kV mm-1.
Rubber 160 – 200
Mica
Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitor with Dielectric Slab:

V = E0 (d – t) + EN t

E0 E0
K= or EN =
E K E0 Ep t d
EN = E 0 - E p
N
E0
V = E0 (d – t) + t
K
t
V = E0 [ (d – t) K
]
+ A 0
σ qA or C= ε
But E0 = = t
ε0 ε0 d 1– [ d
(1 - t
)
K
q
and C=
V C0 ]
or C=
A ε0 t
C= [1 – d
(1 -
)
t
K
[ (d – t) t
K ] C > C0. ]
i.e. Capacitance increases with
+
introduction of dielectric
If the dielectric slab occupies the whole space between the plates, i.e. t = d,
then
C = K C0

C
Dielectric Constant K=
C0

WITH DIELECTRIC SLAB

Physcial Quantity With Battery With Battery

disconnected connected
Charge Remains the same Increases (K C0 V0)

Capacitance Increases (K C0) Increases (K C0)

Electric Field Decreases Remains the same

EN = E 0 – E p
Potential Difference Decreases Remains the same

Energy stored Remains the same Increases (K U0)

Van de Graaff Generator:
S

P2

C2
S – Large Copper sphere
D
C1, C2 – Combs with sharp points
P1, P2 – Pulleys to run belt

HVR – High Voltage Rectifier M

– Motor
T
IS – Insulating Stand C1 I S
D – Gas Discharge Tube T -
Target

HVR
P1
M
Principle:

Consider two charged conducting spherical shells such that one is

smaller and the other is larger. When the smaller one is kept inside the
larger one and connected together, charge from the smaller one is
transferred to larger shell irrespective of the higher potential of the larger
shell. i.e. The charge resides on the outer surface of the outer shell
and the potential of the outer shell increases considerably.

Sharp pointed surfaces of a conductor have large surface charge

densities and hence the electric field created by them is very high
compared to the dielectric strength of the dielectric (air).

Therefore air surrounding these conductors get ionized and the like
charges are repelled by the charged pointed conductors causing
discharging action known as Corona Discharge or Action of Points.
The sprayed charges moving with high speed cause electric
wind.

Opposite charges are induced on the teeth of collecting comb (conductor)

and again opposite charges are induced on the outer surface of the
collecting sphere (Dome).
Construction:

Van de Graaff Generator consists of a large (about a few metres in

radius) copper spherical shell (S) supported on an insulating stand (IS)
which is of several metres high above the ground.

A belt made of insulating fabric (silk, rubber, etc.) is made to run over
the pulleys (P1, P2 ) operated by an electric motor (M) such that it ascends
on the side of the combs.

Comb (C1) near the lower pulley is connected to High Voltage Rectifier
(HVR) whose other end is earthed. Comb (C2) near the upper pulley
is connected to the sphere S through a conducting rod.

A tube (T) with the charged particles to be accelerated at its top and
the target at the bottom is placed as shown in the figure. The bottom end
of the tube is earthed for maintaining lower potential.

To avoid the leakage of charges from the sphere, the generator is

enclosed in the steel tank filled with air or nitrogen at very high pressure
(15 atmospheres).
Working:

Let the positive terminal of the High Voltage Rectifier (HVR) is

connected to the comb (C1). Due to action of points, electric wind is
caused and the positive charges are sprayed on to the belt (silk or
rubber). The belt made ascending by electric motor (EM) and pulley
(P1) carries these charges in the upward direction.

The comb (C2) is induced with the negative charges which are
carried by conduction to inner surface of the collecting sphere
(dome) S through a metallic wire which in turn induces positive
charges on the outer surface of the dome.

The comb (C2) being negatively charged causes electric wind by

spraying negative charges due to action of points which neutralize
the positive charges on the belt. Therefore the belt does not carry
any charge back while descending. (Thus the principle of
conservation of charge is obeyed.)

Contd..
The process continues for a longer time to store more and more
charges on the sphere and the potential of the sphere increases
considerably. When the charge on the sphere is very high, the
leakage of charges due to ionization of surrounding air also
increases.

Maximum potential occurs when the rate of charge carried in by

the belt is equal to the rate at which charge leaks from the shell
due to ionization of air.

Now, if the positively charged particles which are to be

accelerated are kept at the top of the tube T, they get accelerated
due to difference in potential (the lower end of the tube is
connected to the earth and hence at the lower potential) and are
made to hit the target for causing nuclear reactions, etc.
Uses:

Van de Graaff Generator is used to produce very high

potential difference (of the order of several million volts) for
accelerating charged particles.

The beam of accelerated charged particles are used to

trigger nuclear reactions.

The beam is used to break atoms for various experiments in

Physics.

In medicine, such beams are used to treat cancer.

It is used for research purposes.

END OF ELECTROSTATICS