UNIT ONE

WRITING EFFECTIVE SENTENCES

The main parts of a sentence
1. Subject
• In general, the subject refers to the part of the
sentence which tells whom or what the sentence is
addressing. Or it is the part which is spoken of.
Example: -Kebede walked down the street.
-The lion was killed by Alemu

Kebede is the subject, because he is the doer/actor, or

subject, in the sentence. Similarly, the lion is the one
spoken of.
 Types of subjects
The underlined words are types of subjects.

• Simple subject: Ketema is an old man.

• Full subject: Jemal's proposal is feasible.

• Compound subject: Martha and Tigist joined

the team at the same time.
 In addition, a subject may be:
A. A noun: The sun is rising.
B. A pronoun: He is writing.
C. An infinitive or gerund:
-To read improves the mind
-Reading improves the mind
D. An adjective: The rich and the poor rejoiced.
E. A group of words: Early to bed, early to rise
makes a man healthy.
F. A whole clause: Whoever knows him well
respects him.
2. Predicate
• A predicate is the verb that tells us what the
subject is doing.
• A sentence can have just a subject and a
predicate.
Example: Ketema came.
Here are the types of predicates.
 Simple predicate: Hailu drank the milk.
 Full predicate: The boy slowly walked to his
mother.
 Compound predicate: They both sang and
danced at the party.
 What is a sentence?
A sentence is an expression of thought or
feeling by means of a word or words that
include a subject and/or a predicate used to
convey the intended meaning.

Example: -Alemu speaks French.

-Come.
 Kinds of Sentences

• Declarative - A declarative sentence makes a

statement, and ends with a period.

Example: The eggs will be cooked in a pot.

• Interrogative - An interrogative sentence asks
a question, and ends with a question mark.

Example: How did you find the card?

• Exclamatory - An exclamatory sentence shows
strong feeling, a sudden emotion, and ends with
an exclamation mark.

Example: The monster is attacking!

• Imperative - An imperative sentence gives a
command, order or request.
Example: Kebede, try the other door.

• Sometimes the subject of an imperative sentence

(you) is understood.
Example: Look in the closet. (You, look in the
closet.)
 Exercise I
Tell what kind of sentence each of the following is.

1. When will you do that?

2. The house is on fire.

3. She wants to know why you did that.

4. Would you please accept my invitation?

5. Her behavior is disturbing the boy!

 Phrases
• A phrase is a group of words without both a
subject and predicate.

There are different types of phrases:

• A noun phrase acts as a noun.
Example, "the hungry cat”.
• An adjective phrase
Example: The boy playing the guitar was happy.
 A verb phrase
Example: She must have jumped across the stream.
• An adverb phrase
Example: The cake with nuts fell onto the floor
• A prepositional phrase
Example: The house on the corner was old.
• Appositive phrase
Example: Abebech, my sister with dark hair,
sang a song.
• Gerund phrase
Example: I like swimming in lakes.
• Infinitive phrase
Example: I will not forget to bring the book.
 Clauses
• A clause is essentially a phrase, but with both
the subject and predicate coming together.
• Clauses are either dependent or independent.

• An independent clause can exist by itself as a

complete sentence while a dependent clause
cannot.
• Example: I like people(IC) who smile(DC).
 Dependent or Subordinate Clauses
• A dependent or subordinate clause depends
on an independent clause to express its full
meaning
• Dependent clauses can function as nouns,
adjectives, and adverbs:
1. Noun clause - The boy wondered if his
parents bought him what he wanted for
Christmas.
2. Adjective clause (or relative clause)
- I listened to the song that you told me about.
• relative clauses are either restrictive or
nonrestrictive (also called defining and
non-defining, essential and nonessential,
or integrated and supplementary):
– Restrictive clause
Example: The building that they built at
Bole sold for a lot of money
_ Non-restrictive clause
Example: The building, which they built
at Bole, sold for a lot of money
– A nonrestrictive clause adds extra
information about an already-specific
noun, and it is separated off by commas

– In the example above , there's only one

building to talk about,

– whereas the example for the restrictive

clause implies that there could be several
buildings.
• Adverb clause
Example: She will call you when she gets time.
• Adverb clauses express when, where, why,
and how something occurs.
• A dependent clause is an adverb clause if you
can replace it with an adverb.
Example: She will call you later.
 Types of Sentences According to Structure
• A sentence may consist of one clause (independent
clause) or more clauses (independent and dependent
clauses).

On the basis of numbers of clause and types of

clauses present in a sentence, sentences are
divided in to four types:
• Simple, compound, complex, and compound-
complex
• Simple Sentence
A simple sentence consists of only one
independent clause containing a subject and
a verb.
An independent clause (also called main
clause) is called a simple sentence.
Examples:
They laughed.
They are singing.
Kebede bought a pen.
She ate an orange.
• Compound Sentence
A compound sentence consists of at least two independent
clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions.

The coordinating conjunctions used to join independent

clauses are “for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so”.(FANBOYS)
Independent clauses can also be joined by a semicolon (;).

A comma may or may not be used before the conjunction in

compound sentence.
Examples
I like apples but my brother likes mangoes.
He failed two times yet he is not disappointed.
I asked him a question; he replied correctly.
 NOTE:
• Coordinating conjunctions sometimes do not
indicate much of a relationship.
• The word "and," for example, only adds one
independent clause to another, without
indicating how the two parts of a sentence are
logically related.
• Too many compound sentences that use "and"
can weaken writing.
• Clearer and more specific relationships can be
established through the use of complex
sentences
• Complex Sentence
A complex sentence consists of one independent
clause and at least one dependent clause
joined by a subordinating conjunction:
(because, although, since, when, unless etc) or relative
pronoun (that, who, which etc).

Examples:
He saw the girl who had helped him.
He is wearing a coat which looks nice.
She can’t pass the exam unless she studies
for it.
• If a complex sentence begins with an
independent clause, a comma is not used
between the clauses.
• If a complex sentence begins with dependent
clause then a comma is used after the
dependent clause.
• See the following examples:

He is playing well although he is ill.

Although he is ill, he is playing well.
• Dependent clauses begin with subordinating
conjunctions. Below are some of the most
common subordinating conjunctions:
• After, although, as, because
• Before, even though, if, since
• Though, unless, until, when
• Whenever, whereas, wherever, while
• Compound-Complex Sentence
A compound-complex sentence consists of at least
two independent and one or more dependent
clauses.

Examples:
1. He went to college and I went to market
where I bought a book.
2. I like Mathematics but my bother likes
Biology because he wants to be a doctor.
• In the above sentences, there are two
independent clauses and one dependent clause
Identifying and Correcting Faulty Sentences in Writing
• Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment (or incomplete sentence) is
almost a sentence but lacks a subject, a finite
verb, or a completed thought.
Sentence fragments are one of the three serious
errors.
Often, but not always, sentence fragments begin
with "That," "Because," or an "–ing" verb,
Examples of a sentence fragment
• Because she was new in town and had not
met any of her neighbors.*
• That the dog would have to be put outside
while the house was fumigated.*

• You can correct a sentence fragment by

supplying one or more of the missing
elements: the subject, the finite verb, or the
completed thoughts.
• Also, a sentence fragment often can be
corrected by using a comma instead of a
period to separate the incomplete sentence
from the sentence that comes before it or
after it.

• Because she was new in town and had not

met any of her neighbors, she had nothing to
do on Saturday night.
• The dog would have to be put outside while
the house was fumigated.
• Run-on Sentences
A run-on sentence occurs when two or more
sentences are brought together with no
punctuation between the sentences.

Examples:
• We listened to music all night my favorite song
was “ Forever."*
• I took English 1011 last year it was a great class!
*
• He used to work at CBE now he works at
AbayBank.*
• To Correct run-on sentences separate the
complete sentences with:
(1) a period, (2) a semicolon, (3) or a comma
followed by a conjunction (such as "but," "and,"
or "so").

Examples:
• We listened to music all night. My favorite song
was “Forever."
• I took English 1011 last spring, and it was a
great class!
• He used to work at CBE, but now he works at
Abay Bank.
• Comma Splices
A comma splice occurs when a comma separates two
complete sentences.
Comma splices are one of the three serious
"sentence-boundary" errors.
Examples:
• He could not stand the long hours, he quitted his
job.*
• We all watched Titanic, it was a great movie!*
• Susan was overwhelmed with work, however she
was able to complete her work before she left the
office.*
• Comma splices can be corrected in several
different ways, including:
• using a period instead of the comma,
• using a semicolon instead of the comma, and
• adding a conjunction (such as "or," "but," "and,"
"if") immediately after the comma.

Examples:
• He could not stand the long hours, so he quitted
his job.
• We all watched Titanic. It was a great movie!
• Susan was overwhelmed with work; however,
she was able to complete her work before she
left the office.
• Mixed Construction
Mixed construction occurs when one part of a
sentence does not logically or grammatically
follow another part of the sentence.
Examples:
• In Alice Walker’s "To Hell with Dying" is
about the love the narrator shares with Mr.
Sweet.*
• Because of pollution is one reason so many
animals are endangered.*
 Most often, mixed construction can be corrected
if you consider the subject and the verb of the
sentence in which mixed construction occurs.

Mixed construction can often be corrected simply

with the deletion of a word or two.
Examples:
• Alice Walker’s "To Hell with Dying" is about the
love the narrator shares with Mr. Sweet.
• Pollution is one reason so many animals are
endangered.
• Faulty Parallelism
Faulty parallelism occurs when parts of a
sentence that are either in balance or part of a
series are not presented with the same (or
parallel) grammatical structure.

Examples:
– He likes to listen to music, to watch movies, and going
swimming.*
– She understood how to change the oil and replacing
the air filter.*
– The assignment required students to identify an
important character in the novel, to describe this
character’s actions, and explaining how the
character’s actions influence the plot.*
 To correct faulty parallelism, you first must recognize
that you are balancing items in your sentence or
presenting two or more items in a series.
Separating the different parts of your sentence should
help.

Examples:
• He likes to listen to music, to watch movies, and to
swim.
• She understood how to change the oil and how to
replace the air filter.
• The assignment required students to identify an
important character in the novel, to describe this
character’s actions, and to explain how the character’s
actions influence the plot.
• SUBJECT-VERB DISAGREEMENT
In standard written English, singular subject
takes a singular verb, and a plural subject
requires a plural verb.
• Disagreement
Military advisors has been sent to Central Africa.
Fast, effective medical service are one of the major
goals of an Area Health Center.
• Do not confuse the plural ‘s’ ending of a noun
with the singular's’ ending of a verb.
• An ‘s’ at the end of a noun almost always
signals that the word is plural, whereas an ‘s’
at the end of a verb indicates that it is
singular.Therefore,if you have written a
sentence in which the subject and verb both
end in ‘s’,they probably disagree in number.
• Disagreement
In the latest air disaster film, two planes flying
over a large city collides.
Exceptions
1.A few nouns(news, economics,etc.)are plural
in form but singular in meaning.When one of
these singular nouns functions as a
subject,its verb should also be singular.
• Example
The news from Middle East is all bad.
Economics attracts many students on this
campus.
2.When a title is the subject of a sentence,the
verb should also be singular-even if the title
includes a plural noun or pronoun.
• Example
Jaws Fennimore Cooper’s The Pioneers takes
place in the west.
Jaws has made some people afraid to go in the
water.
• Note that in both of these sentences the
subject is the title itself, not the words
comprising it.
• When the subject of a sentence is a collective
noun,use a singular verb if the noun refers to
a group as a unit and a plural verb if the noun
refers to the individuals comprising a group.
• Collective noun referring to members as a unit
The negotiating team disagrees with the
ambassador’s policy statement.
• Collective noun referring to individual
members
The negotiating team disagree about how to
respond to the ambassador’s policy
statement.
In the first sentence above,the verb is singular
because the negotiating team is unified in its
disagreement with the ambassador’s policy
statement.
In the second sentence, the verb is plural
because the members of the negotiating team
respond differently to the ambassador’s
statement.
When using an indefinite pronoun as subject,
choose a verb form that tells the reader
whether the pronoun is singular or plural in
meaning.
• Some of the liquid in the beaker has spilled on
the floor.(Some is a singular quantity and
therefore needs a singular verb.)
• Some of the skateboard artists were doing
flips as they glided along the sidewalk .(some
refers to more than one skateboard artists
and therefore needs a plural verb.)
 Besure to make a distinction
between these two indefinite
pronouns and the two other
classes of indefinite
pronouns:those which are always
plural and(several,few,any)
• And those which are always singular(each,
everyone,everybody,somebody,anybody,eithe
r,neither,etc.)
Many speak ,but few listen
Everyone has the same problem.
*Make a verb in a relative clause agree in
number with the antecedent of the relative
pronoun.
• Because a relative pronoun who,which,that)
does not have distinictive singular and plural
forms,you must locate the antecedent inorder
to determine the number of the pronoun.
Example
The person who has the most experience will
receive first consideration.(singular
antecedent-singular verb)
 The people who have the most experience will
receive first consideration.(plural antecedent-
plural verb).
*To determine the number of a verb with the
compound antecedent,note the type of
conjunction(s)used to unite the elements of
the compounds.
If you form a compound subject with and,make
the verb plural;if you join the subjects with
or,nor,either,or neither,make the verb
singular.
But,if you join subjects with ‘either…
or,’’neither…nor’or’not only…but also’,make
the verb agree with the part of the compound
closest to it.
Example
The highway patrol and the national guard were
available for emergency duty.
*Use a sigular verb with such constructions only
on the rare occasion when you want to
indicate that the elements joined by and
function as one.
Example
The famous pirate and smuggler was capable of
evading even the swiftest of his pursuers.
Neither of the students is attending classes.
John or David takes the first rank.
Neither reason nor intuitions are infallible.
Either thunderstorms or heavy fog makes
driving difficult.
Exercise 1
Correct the errors in subject-verb agreement.
1.Neither the chief airport official nor the
president of the airline were certain that the
strike could be averted.
2.If either of the rescue teams get through in
time,it will be a miracle.
3.Star Wars were a picture that spawned
numerous inferior imitations.
4.The source of the ruler’s problems were the
apathy and mistrust of his subjects.
5.Reducing the inefficiencies in production lines
were the main concern of the newly hired
consultants.
6.There is several ivory chess sets in the wall
safe.
7.The dancers and their director gives a benefit
performance yearly for the community.
Exercise 2
Correct the errors in subject-verb agreement in
the following passage.
Two of the biggest problems a college freshman
face are homesickness and lonliness.Freshmen
on their own for the first time often
experiences feelings of anxiety and insecurity
until they adjust to their new independence.
However,once the newest members of the
campus community makes the necessary
adjustments,solitude and new found freedom
becomes enjoyable rather than frightening.
• Pronoun-Antecedent Disagreement
A pronoun and its antecedent(the word or
words that the pronoun refers to)should
always agree in number.A singular pronoun
requires a singular antecedent,and a plural
pronoun requires a plural antecedent.
Example
The antique collector placed her bid.
The antique collectors placed their bids.
With collective nouns such as
committee,team,jury,and the like,use either a
singular or a plural pronoun depending on
whether you want the reader to think of the
members of the group as a unit or as
individuals.
The committee submitted its report to the boss.
The committee disagreed about whether they
should submit their report to the boss
When using an indefinite pronoun as an
antecedent,note whether it is singular or plural
and make any pronoun that refers to it agree in
number.
• Like collective nouns,some indefinite pronouns
(any,all,some) may be singular or plural.
Some of the baggage was damaged when it fell
out of the trunk.
(some of the baggage is conceived as a single
amount).
The graduating seniors gathered in the
auditorium.Some wore their robes ,and some
wore their school clothes.(some refers to
several individuals).
Few remained in their homes during the
earthquake.
Most indefinite pronouns ,however,are always
singular.These include such as words as
each,every,either,neither,everyone,someone
,anyone,etc.Confusion can arise when words
intervene between an indefinite pronoun and
its antecedent.
Disagreement
Each of the members of women’s association
had their own motives.
Agreement
Each of the members of the women’s
association had her own motives.
Somebody left a car in the middle of the street.
Students have different theories about how to
prepare for tests.
Everyone has his/her own theory about how to
prepare tests.
In general,a pronoun should be plural if its
antecedent is a compound consisting of two or
more words joined by and.
My brother and his wife like cold weather,but
they are having second thoughts about moving
to Alaska.
Exception:
If the elements joined by and refer to the same
person or thing,treat the entire compound as
A singular antecedent and use the singular form
for any pronouns that refer to it.
The famous actor and director recently
completed his new film.
If the anecedent is a compound in which the
elements are linked by or,nor,either,or
neither,use a singular pronoun,but if the
compound is linked by elements like ‘either…
or’,’neither…nor,or’not only…but also’,
The pronoun should agree with the part of the
antecedent that is closest to it.
Example:
Neither the life jacket nor the flashlight was in its
place.
Neither the life jacket nor the flashlights were in
their proper place.
Neither the life jackets nor the flashlight was in its
proper place.
Pronoun-Antecedent Disagreement
Execicise 1
Revise each of the following sentences to
eliminate pronoun-antecedent disagreements.
1.Each instructors has a philosophy of teaching
that they follow.
2.The encounter group meet every Tuesday in
their room on the third floor.
3.Neither of the campers was very happy with
the weather they encountered during the
backwoods trip.
4.The committee makes their recommendations
for new bylaws after their last meeting of the
year.
5.The entire coin collection was stolen from
their hiding places.
6.Everyone who has finished their warm-up can
begin their floor exercise.
7.The great doctor and scientist will take a
vacation only after the completion of their
research.
8.Some of the logs spilled from its bin on the
back of the truck.
Exercise 2
Correct the pronoun-disagreement error in the
following passage.
Everyone has their favourite kind of music,but
few can tell specifically what makes it
appealing.Like the kids on American
Bandsand,the average music lover can
describe their reactions to the music only in
general terms,such as”I like the beat”or
“It’s easy to dance to.”These people fail to
realize that each of the songs they admire has
their distinctive features.By analyzing the
appeal of a song,both the enthusiast and the
average listener derive greater enjoyment and
appreciation.
• Lack of Subject/Verb Agreement(Revision)
Lack of subject/verb agreement occurs when
a verb does not agree in number with its
subject.
Examples:
– One of my teachers are in the office.*
•

– Neither Frank nor Elizabeth are here

today.*
– No one in the crowd of 10,000
spectators watching the football game
seem to understand why the player
was penalized.*
• To correct a lack of subject/verb agreement,
you must identify the subject of the verb and
then change the verb to agree with that
subject.

• Do not be fooled by words that may come

between the subject and the verb.
Examples:
– One of my teachers is in the office.
– Neither Frank nor Elizabeth is here today.
– No one in the crowd of 10,000 spectators
watching the football game seems to
understand why the player was penalized.
• Pronoun Errors
Pronouns must agree in number and person
with the noun they are replacing (the words
that pronouns replace are called
"antecedents").

 Lack of pronoun agreement occurs when the

pronoun does not agree in number or person
with its antecedent.
• Pronoun errors also occur when the writer uses
a pronoun whose antecedent is missing, is
ambiguous, or is too far removed from its
antecedent.
Examples:
– When a student gets behind in the course,
they have a difficult time completing all of the
assignments.*
– Jemal asked Martha if the instructor wanted
to see her.*
– When one debates an issue, he must have
thorough knowledge of both sides of the
issue.*
To correct a problem with pronoun
agreement, you must identify the antecedent
of the pronoun, and then you must change
the pronoun or the antecedent so that each
agrees in number and person with the other.

If the antecedent may be unclear to readers,

you can replace the pronoun with its
antecedent, or you might have to rewrite the
sentence to clarify your meaning
Examples:
– When a student gets behind in the course,
he or she has a difficult time completing all
of the assignments, or When students get
behind in the course, they have a difficult
time completing all of the assignments.
– Jemal asked Martha if the instructor
wanted to see Martha.
– When one debates an issue, one must have
thorough knowledge of both sides of the
issue
• Apostrophe/Possessive Errors
There are different kinds of possessive and apostrophe
errors:
• use of a possessive form where one is not needed,
• lack of a possessive form where one is needed,
• a misplaced apostrophe, and
• confusion over "its" and "it’s."
Examples:
– All of the student’s were prepared for the exam.*
– I waited an hour in the doctors office!*
– Marthas’ dream is to begin a new life with Frew.*
– Its not that I dislike the story; I just do not
understand it’s meaning.*
• Correcting possessive and apostrophe errors is
largely a matter of understanding when you are
and are not showing "possession.“

• If you are unsure, try reversing the words in question

and then place the word "of" between them; if it makes
sense, you need an apostrophe to show possession.

• For example, do I need an apostrophe for

"doctors office"? Is my meaning "[the] office [of]
the doctor"? Yes, so I need to write "doctor’s
office."
• Also, remember not to use an apostrophe if
you are not showing possession but are
simply using a plural form of a word, as in
"The doctors arrived at noon."
• Finally, where you place the apostrophe for a
possessive is important:
Examples:
– "doctor’s office" means the office of one
doctor;
– "doctors’ office" means that more than
one doctor share the same office ("[the]
office [of] the doctors").
• Therefore, the above errors can be corrected
in the following ways:
– All of the students were prepared for
the exam.
– I waited an hour in the doctor’s office!
– Mary’s dream is to begin a new life
with Frank.
– It’s not that I dislike the story; I just do
not understand its meaning.
• Misplaced/Dangling Modifiers
A "modifier" is a word or phrase that "modifies"
or changes another word or phrase.
A modifier is misplaced if it modifies the wrong
word or phrase.
A modifier is "dangling" if the word or phrase
that is supposed to be modified does not appear
in the sentence.
Examples:
– Looking out the window, the snow continued to
fall.*
– After biting two children, the police took away
our German Shepherd.*
– Although expensive and well planned, she was
disappointed by her vacation to Hawaii.*
• If a sentence begins with a modifier followed by a
comma, whatever word or phrase is being
modified must immediately follow the comma.
• If the modifier is "dangling," the writer needs to
supply the word or phrase that is being modified.
Examples:
– Looking out the window, he saw that the snow
continued to fall.
– After biting two children, our German Shepherd
was taken away by the police.
– Although expensive and well planned, her
vacation to Hawaii was disappointing
• Inaccurate Word Choice
"Inaccurate Word Choice" indicates errors in
word choice, usually errors involving words in
English that are commonly confused.
A few of these commonly confusingwords are
listed below.
If you have problems with inaccurate word
choice, you should use a dictionary to figure
out the meanings of the words that are
giving you trouble.
Commonly confusing words
 Punctuation
• Punctuation is used to create sense,
clarity and stress in sentences.
• You use punctuation marks to structure
and organize your writing.

• You can quickly see why punctuation is

important if you try and read the
following sentence which has no
punctuation at all:
• perhaps you dont always need to use
commas periods colons etc to make
sentences clear when i am in a hurry tired
cold lazy or angry i sometimes leave out
punctuation marks grammar is stupid i can
write without it and dont need it my uncle
Harry once said he was not very clever and i
never understood a word he wrote to me i
think ill learn some punctuation not too
much enough to write to Uncle Harry he
needs some help
• Now let's see if punctuating it makes a difference!
Perhaps you don't always need to use commas, periods,
colons etc. to make sentences clear. When I am in a
hurry, tired, cold, lazy, or angry I sometimes leave out
punctuation marks. "Grammar is stupid! I can write
without it and don't need it," my uncle Harry once
said. He was not very clever, and I never understood a
word he wrote to me. I think I'll learn some
punctuation - not too much, enough to write to Uncle
Harry. He needs some help!
There are ten punctuation marks in English.

• The period (or full stop in British English)

• The comma
• The exclamation mark
• The question mark
• The colon
• The semicolon
• The quotation mark
• The apostrophe
• The hyphen and the dash
• The parentheses and brackets
 The Period, Full Stop or Point
• The period (known as a full stop in British
English) is probably the simplest of the
punctuation marks to use.
• You use it like a knife to cut the sentences to
the required length.
• Generally, you can break up the sentences
using the full stop at the end of a logical and
complete thought that looks and sounds right
to you.
Examples
– Rome is the capital of Italy.
– I was born in Australia and now live in
Indonesia.
– The Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader
of the Tibetan people.
• Indicate an abbreviation
Many abbreviations require a period.
But, Dr, Mr, Mrs, Ms, MA, Phd, or CIA. do not
take a period in British English,
In American English, some of these do require
periods or both usages are correct (with and
without periods).
Examples
– I will arrive between 6 a.m. and 7 a.m.
– We are coming on Fri., Jan. 4.
• Ellipsis
Often you will see a sentence concluding with
three dots.
This indicates that only part of the sentence
or text has been quoted or that it is being left
up to the reader to complete the thought.
Examples
– The Lord's Prayer begins, "Our Father
which art in Heaven...'"
– He is always late, but you know how I feel
about that...
• Period after a single word
Sometimes a single word can form the
sentence.
In this case you place a full stop after the
word as you would in any other sentence.
This is often the case when the subject is
understood as in a greeting or a command.
Examples
– "Goodbye."
– "Stop."
• Periods in numbers
Numbers use periods in English to separate
the whole number from the decimal.
A period used in a number is also called a
"decimal point" and it is read "point" unless
it refers to money.
Examples
– $10.43 = ten dollars and 43 cents
– 14.17 = fourteen point one seven
• The Comma
• There are some general rules which you can
apply when using the comma.
• However, you will find that in English there
are many other ways to use the comma to
add to the meaning of a sentence or to
emphasize an item, point, or meaning.
• Although we are often taught that commas are used
to help us add 'breathing spaces' to sentences they
are, in fact, more accurately used to organize blocks
of thought or logical groupings.

• Most people use commas to ensure that meaning is

clear and, despite grammatical rules, will drop a
comma if their meaning is retained without it.
• When making a list, commas are the most common way
to separate one list item from the next.
• The final two items in the list are usually separated by
"and" or "or", which should be preceded by a comma.
• Amongst editors this final comma in a list is known as
the "Oxford Comma".

• A series of independent clauses (sentences)

Examples
– I met Harry, we went for a swim together, and
afterwards Harry went home.
– I like your son, I might even love him, but he is not a
very good soccer player.
• a series of nouns
Examples
– For dinner I had soup, fish, chicken, dessert, and
coffee.
– This afternoon I went to Oxford Circus, Picadilly,
Hamstead, and Gatwick Airport.
• a series of adjectives
• A list of adjectives usually requires commas.

• However, if an adjective is modifying

another adjective you do not separate them
with a comma (sentence 3).
Examples
– She was young, beautiful, kind, and
intelligent.
– The house we visited was dark, dreary,
and run-down.
– She was wearing a bright red shirt.
• a series of verbs
Examples
– Tony ran towards me, fell, yelled, and fainted.
– The boy leapt, spun, twisted, and dove into the
water.
• a series of phrases
Examples
– The car smashed into the wall, flipped onto its
roof, slid along the road, and finally stopped
against a tree.
– The dog leapt into the air, snatched the Frisbee
in its mouth, landed, and ran off into the forest.
• Enclosing details
• Use a comma to enclose non-defining relative
clauses and other non-essential details and
comments. The comma is placed on either side
of the insertion.

Examples
– China, one of the most powerful nations on
Earth, has a huge population.
– Jakson's grandmother, who was born in 1930,
lived through the Second World War.
– Cats, unlike dogs, do not respect their
masters.
– My friend, Jim, likes to go scuba diving.
• Participial phrases
Examples
– Hearing that her father was in hospital,
Jane left work immediately.
– Walking to the bus stop that morning, Sam
knew it was going to be a special day.
• Tag questions
Examples
– She lives in Paris, doesn't she?
– We haven't met, have we?
• Interjections
Examples
–Yes, I will stay a little longer,
thank you.
–No, he isn't like other boys.
–Wait, I didn't mean to scare you.
• A final warning
• Putting a comma in the wrong place can lead
to a sentence with a completely different
meaning, look at these two sentences:

• I detest liars like you; I believe that honesty is

the best policy. = I detest you because you
are a liar.

• I detest liars, like you; I believe that honesty

is the best policy. = You and I both detest
liars.
• The Exclamation Mark
• The exclamation mark is used to express
exasperation, astonishment, or surprise, or to
emphasize a comment or short, sharp phrase.
• In professional or everyday writing,
exclamation marks are used sparingly if at
all.
Examples
– Help! Help!
– That's unbelievable!
– Get out!
• The Question Mark
Use the question mark at the end of all direct
questions.
Examples
– What is your name?
– Do you speak Italian?
– You're Spanish, aren't you?
– Do not use a question mark for reported questions
Examples
– He asked me what my name was.
– She asked if I was Spanish.
– Ask them where they are going.
• The Colon
The colon expands on the sentence that precedes it, often
introducing a list that demonstrates or elaborates
whatever was previously stated.
Examples
– There are many reasons for poor written
communication: lack of planning, poor grammar,
misuse of punctuation marks, and insufficient
vocabulary.
– He collected a strange assortment of items: bird's eggs,
stamps, bottle tops, string, and buttons.

The colon is also used to divide the hour from the

minutes in writing a time in English.
Examples
– 4:15 = "four fifteen“
• The Semicolon
The semicolon is somewhere between a full stop and
a comma. Semicolons can be used in English to join
phrases and sentences that are thematically linked
without having to use a conjunction (example 1
below).
Semicolons can also be used instead of commas to
separate the items in a list when the items
themselves already contain commas (example 2
below).
Examples
– I like your brother; he's a good friend.
• Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks to cite something
someone said exactly. When rephrasing what
someone told you, no quotation marks are
needed.
Examples
– "I'm going to the store now," she said.
– Harry told me, "Don't forget your soccer
jersey."
– Harry told me not to forget my soccer
jersey.
• If quoting others within a quote, both
single and double quotation marks are
used to set the two separate quotations
off from each other.
Example
– 'I haven't spoken to Peter for months,'
Dianne said. 'The last time I spoke to
him he said, "I'm going to Bahrain and
won't be back for about three years",
I've heard nothing since then'.
• You may see single or double quotation
marks used to mark out idiomatic or
unfamiliar expressions
Examples
– I've always thought that he was very
annoying, a bit of a 'pain in the neck.‘

– I'm not sure what you mean by

"custodial care", but I'm sure you will
explain it to me.
• Quotation marks both single and double are
also used for specific purposes in bibliographic
references or when citing sources in academic
writing.
• There are a number of ways of organising
bibliographies which set out standard formats.
• Most organisations and academic institutions
will prefer one of these or have their own
format published in a 'style guide'.
Example
– "The Migration Flight of the Lesser
Tweazle", by Jeremey Adams, The Bird
Spotter Magazine, July 2009.
• The Apostrophe
• The apostrophe probably causes more
grief than all of the other punctuation
marks put together!
• The problem nearly always seems to
stem from not understanding that the
apostrophe has two very different (and
very important) uses in English:
possession and contractions.
• The apostrophe in contractions
• The most common use of apostrophes in
English is for contractions, where a noun or
pronoun and a verb combine.

• Remember that the apostrophe is often

replacing a letter that has been dropped. It is
placed where the missing letter would be in
that case
– Contractions
– isn't, hasn't, hadn't, didn't, wouldn't, can't
– she's, there's, he's, it's, Mary's, Jim's,
Germany's, who's
• you're and your, who's and whose, and they're,
their and there. See below for the difference.
Examples
– It's a nice day outside. (contraction)
– The cat is dirty. Its fur is matted. (possession)
– You're not supposed to be here. (contraction)
– This is your book. (possession)
– Who's at the door? (contraction)
– Whose shoes are these? (possession)
– They're not here yet. (contraction)
– Their car is red. (possession)
– His car is over there. (location
• The possessive apostrophe
In most cases you simply need to add 's to
a noun to show possession
Examples
– a ship's captain
– a doctor's patient
– a car's engine
– Ibrahim's coat
– Mirianna's book
• Plural nouns that do not end in s also follow this rule:
Examples
– the children's room
– the men's work
– the women's club
• Ordinary (or common) nouns that end in s, both singular and
plural, show possession simply by adding an apostrophe after
the s.

Examples
– the bus' wheel
– the babies' crying
– the ladies' tennis club
– the teachers' journal
• Proper nouns (names of people, cities, countries)
that end in s can form the possessive either by
adding the apostrophe + s or simply adding the
apostrophe.
• Today both forms are considered correct
(Jones's or Jones'), and many large
organizations now drop the apostrophe
completely (e.g. Barclays Bank, Missing Persons
Bureau) when publishing their name.
Examples
– The Hughes' home (or the Hughes's home)
– Mr Jones's shop (or Mr Jones' shop)
– Charles' book (or Charles's book)
• Hyphens
Generally, hyphens are used to join two words or
parts of words together while avoiding confusion or
ambiguity.
Examples
– run-down
– up-to-date
• There are some cases where hyphens preserve
written clarity such as where there are letter
collisions, where a prefix is added, or in family
relations
Examples
– co-operate
– bell-like
– anti-nuclear
• In some cases though, a hyphen does change
the meaning of a sentence.
Example
– I am thinking of re-covering my sofa (= to put a new
cover on it)
– I would like to recover my sofa. (= from someone
who has borrowed or stolen it)

• Hyphens in numbers
Use a hyphen with compound numbers from
twenty-one to ninety-nine.
Examples
– fifty-one
– eighty-nine
• In written fractions place a hyphen between
the numerator and denominator except if
there is already a hyphen in either the
numerator or the denominator.
Examples
– two-fifths
– one-third
• Use a hyphen when a number forms part of
an adjectival compound
Examples
– France has a 35-hour working week.
– He won the 100-metre sprint.
• Dashes
Dashes can be used to add parenthetical
statements or comments in much the same
way as you would use brackets.
In formal writing you should use the bracket
rather than the dash as a dash is considered
less formal.
Dashes can be used to create emphasis in a
sentence.
Examples
– You may think she is a liar - she isn't.
– She might come to the party - you never know
• Brackets and Parentheses
• The difference between a 'bracket' and a
'parentheses' can be a bit confusing.
• Generally, 'parentheses' refers to round
brackets ( ) and 'brackets' to square
brackets [ ].
• However, we are more and more used to
hearing these referred to simply as
'round brackets' or 'square brackets'.
• Usually we use square brackets - [ ] - for
special purposes such as in technical
manuals.

• Round brackets - ( ) - are used in a similar

way to commas when we want to add
further explanation, an afterthought, or
comment that is to do with our main line of
thought but distinct from it.
• Many grammarians feel that the parentheses
can, in fact, be replaced by commas in nearly
all cases
• Examples
– The government's education report (April
2005) shows that the level of literacy is
rising in nearly all areas.
– I visited Kathmandu (which was full of
tourists) on my way to the Himalayas for a
trekking expedition.
– You can eat almost anything while
travelling in Asia if you are careful to
observe simple rules (avoiding unboiled or
unbottled water is one of the main rules to
be aware of.)