Meaning

Research is an endeavour to discover answers to

intellectual and practical problems through the
application of scientific method.

Research is the systematic process of collecting and

analyzing information (data) in order to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon about which we are
concerned or interested.
 BURDEN OF ILLNESS
OR
DISEASE MAGNITUDE

CAUSATION
EVALUATION
AETIOLOGY
AND MONITORING OF DISEASE RISK FACTORS
PROGRAMMES
PROGNOSTIC FACTORS

EFFICIENCY
EFFICACY /
OF
EFFECTIVENESS OF
INTERVENTIONS
INTERVENTIONS
OR
To see ones name in BLACK & WHITE OR
PASSPORT to appear exam?
 Features of Research
Research is directed to - solution of a problem.
Research is based upon observable experience or
empirical evidence.
Research demands accurate observation and
description
Research involves gathering new data from primary
sources or using existing data for a new purpose.
Research activities are characterized by carefully
designed procedures
Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to
carryout investigation, search the related literature and
to understand and analyze the data gathered.
 Research is objective and logical – applying every
possible test to validate the data collected and
conclusions reached
 Research requires courage.
 Research is characterized by unhurried activity
 Research is carefully recorded and reported.
 CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH

 Purpose clearly defined in beginning.

 Research process clear detailed.
 Research design thoroughly planned.
 High ethical standards applied.
 Limitations frankly revealed and accepted.
 Adequate analysis plan ready
 Findings presented unambiguously.
 Conclusions justified.
 Researcher’s experience reflected.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH

 Applied vs Fundamental Research

Applied Research or Action Research is carried out to
find solution to a real life problem requiring an action or policy
decision.

Fundamental Research which is also known as basic or

pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without
any intention to apply it in practice.
It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity and
is not necessarily problem-oriented.
 Descriptive, Analytical amd Experimenal
Research
Descriptive Research is a fact finding investigation. It
has aim to describe the characteristics of individual
(person), situation (place) or a when occurred (time) at
the of affairs or event.

Analytical Research is primarily concerned with testing

hypothesis and specifying and interpreting
relationships, by analyzing the facts or information
already available.

Experimental Research – It is designed to assess the

effect of one particular variable on a phenomenon by
keeping the other variables constant or controlled.
Quantitative vs Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research is employed for

measuring the quantity or amount of a
particular phenomena by the use of
statistical analysis.

Qualitative Research is a non-

quantitative type of analysis which is
aimed at finding out the quality of a
particular phenomenon.
Some other types of research..

Diagnostic Research – It is also called clinical

research which aims at identifying the causes of a
problem, frequency with which it occurs and the
possible solutions for it.
Exploratory Research – It is the preliminary study of
an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has
little or no knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity with
the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise
formulation of the problem. Hence it is also known
as formulative research.

Historical Research – It is the study of past records and

other information sources, with a view to find the origin
and development of a phenomenon and to discover the
trends in the past, in order to understand the present
and to anticipate the future
 RESEARCH PROCESS
FF
Review the literature
FF

Review
Concepts Analyse
Design
And Collect Data
Research Interpret
Define theories Formulate Data (Test
(Including and
Research hypothesis (Execution) Hypothesis
Sample report
Problem if any)
Review Design)
F F
Previous
I Research III IV V
findings VI VII

II
F

F Feed Back
FF Feed Forward
 Selecting the Topic for Research
 Literature Search
 Framing a Research Question
 Formulating Hypothesis and Framing
Objectives
 Comprehensive Literature Search
 Developing the Protocol
 Pre-testing and Revising the Protocol
 Seeking clearances / permissions IEC
 Carrying out the Study
 Analyzing the Data (Data Management)
 Interpreting the Results
 Writing a Thesis or Report
 Dissemination
 Feedback action
 Selecting

Research Topic
&
Research Question
 RESEARCH PROBLEM

• What is a research problem/ topic?

• The term ‘problem’ means a question or

issue to be examined.
• Research Problem refers to some
difficulty /need which a researcher
experiences in the context of either
theoretical or practical situation and wants
to obtain a solution for the same.
HOW DO WE IDENTIFY A RESEARCH PROBLEM?

General curiosity about the problem

Relates to a practical problem
Relates to a wide population
Fills a research gap
Timely issue
Relates to an influential or critical
population
 SOURCES OF PROBLEMS

Reading
Academic Experience
Daily Experience
Exposure to Field Situations
Consultations
Brainstorming
 CRITERIA OF SELECTION

• The selection of one appropriate researchable

problem out of the identified problems requires
evaluation of those alternatives against certain
criteria.
• They are:
 Internal / Personal criteria – Researcher’s Interest,
Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own
Resource: finance and time.
 External Criteria or Factors – Researchability of the
problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the
Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social
Relevance, Research Personnel.
FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH QUESTION

Formulation is the process of refining the

research ideas into research questions and
objectives.

Formulation means translating and

transforming the selected research
problem/topic/idea into a scientifically
researchable question. It is concerned with
specifying exactly what the research problem
is.
CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH QUESTION

Relevant
Rational
Verifiable
Novel and Original
Feasible
Ethical
 What is a Literature Search?
 “A literature search is a well thought out and
organized search for all of the literature
published on a topic. A well-structured
literature search is the most effective and
efficient way to locate sound evidence on
the subject you are researching. Evidence
may be found in books, journals, government
documents and the internet.”
 Create a chart with possible key words

 Stay focused
 Unmarried fertility = out-of-wedlock
childbearing = single mothers = non-
marital births
 Set limits on your search
 What is your perspective?
 What is your contribution?
 Check your need
 Where do you want to limit?
 You need to find Diamond from
ocean.
1. Research Journals
 Articles
 Reviews/commentaries/replies
 Reviews

2. Books
 Topic books
 Handbooks
 Theory books

3. Online reports
 Census
 Research institutes
 Government organizations
1. Library
 Hard copies of books and journals
 Interlibrary loan

 Online library

2. Internet
 Online journals
 Google Scholar
 EBSCO, PubMed, Dynamide etc.

 Websites
 Government departments, research
institutes, etc
 Critique the Literature
Is it relevant to my research?
Is the study significant?
 Strengths and weaknesses
 what theories or methods are used?
Is the research biased by emotions or
public opinion?
Who is the target reader?
 Public, academic peers, policy makers
 ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES

• Research Objectives are the specific

components of the research problem, that
you’ll be working to answer or complete, in
order to answer the overall research
problem.
• The objectives refers to the questions to be
answered through the study. They indicate
what we are trying to get from the study or
the expected results / outcome of the
study.
 S = Specific
 M = Measurable
 A = Achievable
 R = Relevant / Reliable
 T = Time-bound
 High Neonatal Mortality
 Dying within first few days of life
 Causes of Death
 Dying at home
 Home based neonatal care would reduce
the mortality rate
 Home based package for neonatal care
including management of sepsis would reduce
the mortality rate.
 Home based package for neonatal care
including management of sepsis would reduce
the mortality rate in 3 years.

Ref: Bang AT et al. Lancet; 354: 1955-61

 Home based package for neonatal care
including management of sepsis would reduce
the mortality rate by at least 25% in 3 years.

Ref: Bang AT et al. Lancet; 354: 1955-61

 Read, Read, Read!
 Discuss, Discuss, Discuss!
 Think, Think, Think!
 Which study constitutes BEST Evidence?
 Descriptive
 Analytical
Case-control & Cohort study
 Experimental
Case report is the descriptive study of the
individual in terms of a careful, detailed
report of a single patient.
Case series are the collection of individual
case reports
These studies lead to formulation of new
hypothesis.
Describe patients’ characteristics, and may generate ideas for future studies
o Describe the status of an individual with
respect to the presence or absence of
exposure and disease at the same point in
time.
o An one time measurement conducted on a
sample derived from a population
o Prevalence can be calculated
o Odds Ratio
 Two groups, selected by disease/event

status (diseased: cases, non-diseased: control)

 Cases and controls are compared for

differences in the prevalence of exposures

 Always Retrospective
 A study has been planned to test the
hypothesis that there is an association
between lung cancer and smoking. Two
hundred cases of lung cancer and 200
controls without lung cancer were
selected. All persons were interviewed
for smoking habits. They were
categorized as smokers or non-
smokers.
 Matching
• Calculate OR

• and Interpret
 Suitable for studying rare diseases
 Small sample needed
 Cost effective
 Less time consuming
 OR can be calculated
 Multiple exposures can be assessed
 Potential for bias
 Difficulties of exposure assessment
 Misclassification
 Control selection may be difficult
 Incidence cannot be calculated
 Cohort represents source population
 Internal and external validity are high
 Time scale:
 Prospective
Retrospective
Ambispective

 Incidence directly calculable

 Less bias
 Relative Risk: IE / Io
 IE = a / a + b -----Io = c / c + d
 Attributable risk
 Difference in incidence rates B/W exposed and Non-
exposed groups
IE - IO
 A R = --------------- * 100
IE
 Population attributable risk
 Advantages:
Limitations:
 Temporality as in real •Slow, time consuming, costly.
life. •Not useful in diseases with
 Useful for diseases long latency.
with high prevalence. •Difficult to assess
independent effect of multiple
 When one exposure risk factors.
gives risk to multiple
diseases.
 When exposure is
rare.
 Measures absolute and
relative risk of
disease.
 Also known as interventional studies
 It is designed to assess the effect of one
particular variable on a phenomenon by
keeping the other variables constant or
controlled.
 Usually (but not always) two groups are
compared, one group in which the
intervention takes place (e.g. treatment with a
certain drug) and another group that remains
‘untouched’ (e.g. treatment with a placebo).
 To provide scientific proof of etiological
factor for disease which help in control of
disease
 To provide the effectiveness and efficiency
of drugs in real condition
 To provide a method of measuring the
effectiveness and efficiency of health
services for the prevention, control and
treatment of disease and improve the health
of community.
 Animal Studies

 Human Experiments
 Experimental studies (Randomized controlled
trial) and
 quasi-experimental studies (Non-randomized
controlled trial).
 Formulation of hypothesis.
 Decide the methodology for studying the affect of
the independent variable on the dependent
variable.
 Decide on allocation of subjects to exposed
versus non-exposed groups using carefully
selected randomization technique.
 Take informed consent of the study population.
 Follow the study population forwards in time.
 Collect and analyze the data.
 Conclude by accepting or rejecting the original
hypothesis/assumption.
Population

Met
Inclusion
Criteria?
Sample
 Type of Question Appropriate Study Design
 Burden of illness
Prevalence Cross Sectional Survey
Incidence Longitudinal survey
 Causation, Risk & Prognosis Case Control Study &
 Occupational risk Cohort study
 Environmental Risk Ecological studies
 Treatment Efficacy Randomized Controlled study
 Diagnostic Test Evaluation Randomized Controlled study
 Cost Effectiveness Randomized Controlled study