FEKEDE EGZI COLLEGE

GEOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

BY: WASIE MITIKU (MA/MED)

04/18/2024
MAY, 2022
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Geography: Definition, Scope and Themes
Meaning of Geography
 it is the scientific study of the Earth that describes and analyses spatial/space/
and temporal/time/ variations of physical, biological and human phenomena,
and their interrelationships and dynamism over the surface of the Earth.
 It is a science that studies the earth’s surface and the distribution, arrangement
and interaction of natural and human features and their causes and effects.
1.1.2.04/18/2024
The Scope, Approaches and Themes of Geography
 Scope of Geography
 Scope means the range and variety of contents which are included in a subject of
geography. Geography’s scope is very wide.
 The scope of Geography is the surface of the Earth, which is the very thin zone that is
the boundary of the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, which
provides the habitable zone in which humans are able to live.
 Hydrosphere – It includes all the bodies of water, i.e., oceans, rivers, lakes and others.
 Biosphere – This refers to all living organisms in and on the earth’s surface.
 Atmosphere – It includes all aspects of air composition surrounding our planet.
 Lithosphere – It is the solid layer of rocks which covers the entire surface of the planet

04/18/2024
 Approaches of Geography
It has two approaches:
1. human-physical continuum
 The physical fields of geography studies the distribution of the natural features of the
world, such as climate, landforms, and soil, vegetation, and drainage systems.
 Physical geography also considers causes, effects and interactions of these features.
 human field of geography studies the distribution and influence of human aspects of our
world, including cultures, population settlement, economic activities and political systems.
2. Topical /systematic/-regional continuum.
 The topical (systematic) fields of Geography view particular categories of physical or human
phenomena as distributed over the Earth.
 Regional Geography is concerned with the associations with in regions of all or some of the
04/18/2024
 Themes Geography
It has five basic themes namely location, place, human-environment interaction, movement, and
region.
1. Location. Location is defined as a position of particular place. Location can be of two types:
A. Absolute Location-
 it is the location of a place which is defined by its latitude and longitude or its exact address.
B. Relative Location.
 It is the location of a place in relation to an object or land masses of water bodies
2. Place. Place refers to the physical and human aspects of a location.
 This theme of geography is associated with toponym (the name of a place), site (the description of
the features of the place), and situation (the environmental conditions of the place).

04/18/2024
3. Human-Environment Interaction
 It is the interaction of human with their natural environment.
 No other species that has lived on our planet has a profound effect on the environment as
humans.
 Humans have adapted to the environment in ways that have allowed them to dominate all
other species on Earth.
 Thus, human-environment interaction involves three distinct aspects:
A. Dependency
B. Adaptation, and
C. Modification.

04/18/2024
 Dependency refers to the ways in which humans’ beings are dependent on nature for a living.
 Adaptation relates to how humans modify themselves, their lifestyles and their behavior to
live in a new environment with new challenges.
 Modification it allowed humans to “conquer” the world for their comfortable living.
4. Movement
 the translocation of human beings, their goods, and their ideas from one end of the planet to
another.
5. Region
 A region is a geographic area having distinctive characteristics that distinguishes itself from
adjacent unit(s) of space.
 It is characterized by homogeneity in terms of a certain phenomenon (soil, temperature,
rainfall, or other cultural elements like language, religion, and economy).
04/18/2024
1.2. Location, Shape and Size of Ethiopia and the Horn
 The Horn of Africa, is a narrow tip that protrudes into the northern Indian Ocean, separating
it from the Gulf of Aden.
 is home to the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia, whose cultures have
been linked throughout their long history
 Although the countries of the region share many common features, there is also great
diversity among them, rendering each country unique in many respects.
 In terms of size, Ethiopia is the largest of all the Horn of African countries, while Djibouti is
the smallest.
 The Horn contains such diverse areas as the highlands of the Ethiopian Plateau, the Ogaden
desert, and the Eritrean and Somali coasts.
04/18/2024
1.2.1. Location of Ethiopia
 The location of a country or a place on a map or a globe is expressed in two different ways.
 These are astronomical and relative locations
 Astronomical location, also known as absolute or mathematical location, states location of
places using the lines of latitudes and longitudes.
 Astronomically, Ethiopia is a landlocked country located between 3oN (Moyale) and 15oN
(Bademe - the northernmost tip of Tigray) latitudes and 33oE (Akobo) to 48oE (the tip of
Ogaden in the east) longitudes.
 Relative location expresses the location of countries or places with reference to the
location of other countries (vicinal), landmasses or water bodies.

04/18/2024
No Relative/vicinal/ location In relation to water bodies & land masses
1. Sudan to the west and north west  In the Horn of Africa
2. South Sudan to southwest  Southwest of the Arabian
3. Djibouti to the east Peninsula
4. Somalia to the east and south east  South of Europe
5. Eritrea to the North and North East  Northwest of the Indian Ocean
6. Kenya to the south  In the Nile Basin

04/18/2024
04/18/2024
1.2.2. Size of Ethiopia
 Ethiopia with a total area of approximately 1,106,000 square kilometers is the 8th largest country in Africa and
25th in the World.
 It extends about 1,639 kilometers East-West, and 1,577 kilometers North-South.
 About 0.7% of the country is covered by water bodies.

 The size of Ethiopia also affects both the natural and human environment of the country.
Advantage Disadvantage
Possess diverse agro ecological zones Demands greater capital to construct infrastructural
facilities
Variety of natural resources Requires large army to protect its territory
Own extensive arable land Difficult for effective administration
Have larger population size Difficult for socio-economic integration
Home for diverse cultures
Greater wisdom/depth/ in defense external
04/18/2024
 1.2. Shape of Ethiopia and the horn
 is defined as the geographical form of an area.
 In other words, it is the external geographical appearance of a place.
 Countries of the World have different kinds of shape that can be divided into five main categories:
 Compact shape countries: The distance from the geographic center of the state to any of the borders
does not vary greatly. It is easier for defense, socioeconomic and cultural integration. Example Ethiopia
 Fragmented shape countries: They are divided from their other parts by either water, land or other
countries. Denmark, Philippines
 Elongated/linear/line/shape countries: They are geographically long and relatively narrow like
Chile.
 Perforated shape countries: A country that completely surrounds another country like the Republic
of South Africa. lesotho
 Protrude shape countries: Countries that have one portion that is much more elongated than the rest
04/18/2024
 There are four most commonly used measures of compactness. These are:
Area-Boundary ratio. The ratio of total area of country to its boundary length:
 The higher the value of A/B ratio, the greater the degree of compactness.
A/B= 1,106,000/5,260=210.27
Boundary-Circumference ratio. The ratio of boundary length of a country to the
circumference of a circle having the same area as the country itself:
It measures how far the boundary of a country approximates the circumference of a circle of
its own size. Therefore, the nearer the ratio to 1 the more compact the country is.

04/18/2024
  The radius is obtained by taking half the length of the distance between the
astronomical extremes of west and east of Ethiopia i.e., 48o E – 33o E = 15o /2 = 7o 30’
(this is radius of the inscribing circle).
 The change 7o 30’ in to Km
 1o = 110.5km, then what will be 7o 30’, =7.5km
 Area-Circumference ratio. The ratio of the total area of the country to the
circumference of the smallest inscribing circle:
 The higher the A/C ratio, the greater the degree of compactness.
 A/C= 1106000/5204.55

04/18/2024
 Area- Area (A/A) ratio. The ratio of the actual area of a country to the smallest
possible inscribing circle:
Half- length of the longest distance between two extreme points gives radius of the
inscribing circle.
The nearer the ratio to 1, the more compact the country is.
1.3. Basic Skills of Map Reading
What is a Map?
A map is a two-dimensional/w-l/ scaled representation of part or whole of the
Earth surface on a flat body such as piece of paper, black board, wood or cloth.

04/18/2024
 Importance of maps
 Maps are useful for giving location of geographical features by varied methods of grid
reference, place naming etc.
 Maps are used on various disciplines like land use planning, military science, aviation,
tourism, marine science, population studies, epidemiology, geology, economics, history,
archaeology, agriculture etc.
 Map makes storage of the geographical data of areas represented.
 Types of Map
 According to their purpose and functions there are many types of maps. For the purpose of
this Course, topographical and statistical maps are considered.
 Topographical maps: Topographic maps show one or more natural and cultural features of an
area. They could be small, medium or large scale depending on the size of the area
04/18/2024
 Special purpose/statistical maps: These are maps, which show distribution of different aspects such as
temperature, rainfall, settlement, vegetation etc.
 Marginal Information on Maps (Elements of Maps)
 Marginal information enable the reading and interpretation of the geographical information of an area
represented.
 Title: It is the heading of the given map which tells what the map is all about.
 Key (legend): It is the list of all convectional symbols and signs shown on the map with their interpretation.
 Scale: It is the ratio between the distance on the map and the actual ground distance.
Scales enable the map user to interpret the ground measurement like road distance, areal sizes, gradient etc.
 North arrow: It is indicated with the north direction on a map; used to know the other important directions of
the mapped area like east, west, south, and west.
 Margin: Is the frame of the map. It is important for showing the end of the mapped area.
 Date of compilation: It is a date of map publication. This enables map users to realize whether the map is
updated or outdated.
04/18/2024
Basic Principles of Map Reading
 Map Readers must have ideas about the symbol and also the real
World (landscapes).
 knowledge of directions is an important principle in reading maps..
 Knowledge of grid reference.
 maps are covered in a series of lines that make up a grid.
 The lines have numbers support them that allow you to accurately
pinpoint your location on a map.
04/18/2024
 CHAPTER TWO
THE GEOLOGY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
What is geology
 Geology is an Earth science that studies the evolution of the earth, the materials which it is
made and the processes acting upon them.
 The earth’s continents were made up of Pangaea.
 In the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic era, Pangea broke down into two land masses, these
are Laurasia and Gondwanaland.
 Laurasia was the northern continent, and Gondwanaland was the southern.
 Africa was part of Gondwanaland.
 Through time, each of these continents was further broken down, forming the seven
present-day
04/18/2024
continents.
2.2. The Geologic Processes: Endogenic and Exogenic Forces
Forces that Change the Surface of the Earth includes Endogenic and Exogenic Forces

2.2.1 internal forces (endogenic)

 those forces that originate from the interior part of the earth.

 Internal forces form the ups and downs on the earth’s crust by breaking and bending (faulting and
folding) it. Forces inside the crust cause folding, faulting (cracking), volcanism and earthquakes.

 Folding is one of the internal processes which occurs when two forces act towards each other from
opposing sides.

 Fold mountains are formed by crust which has been uplifted, and folded by compressional forces.
They are formed when two plates move towards each other.

 Faults. Movements in the crust of the earth sometimes make cracks.

04/18/2024
 A rift valley is a valley formed by faulting. When two parallel faults occur on the surface of
the earth, and when the land between the two faults sinks down, a rift valley is formed.

 Block mountains are formed when land between two parallel faults is pushed upward due
to pressure from inside the earth.

 Volcanism is the process by which magma, gases, water vapor, ashes and other solid
materials are forced out to the surface.

 Earthquakes are sudden movements in the earth’s crust.

04/18/2024
2.2.2 The external (exogenic) processes are geomorphic processes.

 Forces out side the surface of the earth

 They include weathering, mass transfer, erosion and deposition.

 They act upon the volcanic and structural landforms by modifying, crushing and lowering
them down.

 Weathering includes disintegration (physical weathering), which breaks rocks into

smaller pieces and decomposition (chemical weathering), which forms new substances.

 Erosion is the transporting of weathered material by various natural forces such as moving
water, wind and moving ice.

04/18/2024
2.3. The Geological Time Scale and Age Dating Techniques

o Geological history of the earth is divided in to Eon- Eras- Periods- Epoch

04/18/2024
Age Dating Techniques

There are two techniques of knowing the age of rocks: these are:-

Relative and absolute age dating.

A. Relative dating uses geological evidence to assign comparative ages of fossils.

 look at any fossils, the rock that contain.

 What is on the top of the older rocks?"

A. Absolute Dating Also known as Radiometric techniques.

This technique was developed with discovery of radioactivity in 1896.

Two of the major techniques include:

 Carbon-14
04/18/2024
Technique:
 2.4. Geological Processes and the Resulting Landforms of Ethiopia and the Horn
Precambrian Era (4.5 billion - 600 million years before the present)
 is the oldest and largest division of the geological time scale.
 It covers almost 5/6th of the geological history of the planet.
 Due to its remoteness in time and lack of fossil evidences, not much is known about this era.
 The major geologic event of the Precambrian Era was Orogenesis and metamorphism.
 Orogenesis: is a mountain-forming process.
 in most parts of Ethiopia rocks belonging to this Era are found under all other rocks, forming
the basement rocks.
 the original rocks (both sedimentary and igneous) were altered into metamorphic rocks of
varying stages of metamorphism.
 The first forms of life emerged, such as amoeba, and jellyfish.
04/18/2024
2.4.2. The Paleozoic Era Geologic Processes (600 million - 225 million years ago)
 The Paleozoic Era lasted for about 375 million years.
 This is the second-longest and second-oldest era in geological history.
 This era witnessed no major rock formation processes. As a result, it is a gap, relative to rock formation in
Africa. However, several other important events took place during this era.
The following are the most important ones.
 Series of denudation and peneplanation: internal and external forces resulting in denudation and peneplanation
of its surface.
 Denudation is the lowering of the earth’s surface, while sinking of land and its resultant
 peneplanation refers to the formation of almost level surfaces as a result of lowering in altitude.
 Heavy erosion: the denudation and peneplanation processes were facilitated by the heavy erosion that affected
many places in Africa.
 during this era, fold mountains that run parallel to the Great Karroo, the interior plateau, formed.
 Formation of coal during the Carboniferous period.
04/18/2024

Mesozoic Era (250-70 million years before the present)
 The Mesozoic era is the third-largest and third-oldest era in the geological history of the earth.
 the era was a time of sinking and rising of the land.
 The following are the most important events that took place during the Mesozoic era
 Sinking of the Horn of Africa resulted in the gradual transgression of the sea
 Formation of sedimentary rocks in eastern Africa
 Uplifting of the land in the Horn of Africa, resulted in the regression of the sea
 The flooding of the Sahara region
 the sinking and uplifting of the landmass.
 predominance of reptiles.
 the disappearance of the dinosaurs
 the emergence of mammals, birds and flowering plants.
04/18/2024
 sedimentary rocks of different periods formed
Cenozoic Era (70 million - present) living era
 The most recent and the shortest era in the geological history of the earth.
 The major geologic events of this era are the following.
 Formation of the mediterranean sea, the great east african rift valley, the red sea and the gulf of aden.
 Formation of many of the volcanic mountains, plateaus and young fold mountains (atlas folds) of africa.
 Climatic change resulted in the cooling and later warming of the earth’s climate.
 The cooling of the climate resulted in the pluvial (fluvial) rains in tropical africa, which caused heavy
erosion/flood.
 Later, warming of the climate resulted in heavy evaporation and drying up of many water surfaces.
Like salt plain the one in northeastern Ethiopia (afar)
 Responsible for the formation of the present surface configuration African continent.
 Modern man evolved.
 Igneous rocks of various period formed
04/18/2024
2.5. Rock and Mineral Resources of Ethiopia
 In Ethiopia a number of minerals were found and still untouched. The occurrence of
metallic minerals in Ethiopia is associated with the Precambrian rocks.
 Ethiopia has abundant mineral resources of metals and precious metals, coal, and
industrial minerals including: -
 Gold ,Platinum Tantalum, Potash, Gypsum and Anhydrite, Clay, Construction stones
2.5.2. Mineral Potential Sites of Ethiopia
According to the Ethiopian geological survey, mineral potential sites of Ethiopia were: -
 The Western and South-western-greenstone belt
 The Southern greenstone belt: It is known as the Adola belt
 The Northern greenstone belt (Tigray)
04/18/2024
 CHAPTER THREE
THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

3.1. General Characteristics of the Ethiopian Physiography

 The Ethiopian landform is characterized by great diversity.
 There are flat-topped plateaus, high and rugged mountains, deep river gorges and vast plains.
 Altitude ranges from 125 meters below sea level (Kobar Sink) to the highest mountain in
Ethiopia, Mount Ras Dashen (4,620 m.a.s.l),
 Ethiopia has the largest proportion of raised landmass in the African continent.
 It is sometimes described as the Roof of East Africa because of its height and large area.
 More than 50% of the Ethiopian landmass is above 1,000 meters of elevation; and above 1,500
meters makes 44% of the country.
 Most of the Ethiopian Highlands are part of central and northern Ethiopia, and its northernmost
04/18/2024
portion extends into Eritrea.
 Most of the country consists of high plateau and mountain ranges that are sources of many
rivers and streams that made the country to be described as the “Water Tower of East Africa”.
 The diversity in topography is accompanied by differences in other natural features such as
soil, climate, vegetation and wild life
Characteristics of Ethiopian highlands:
 Moderate and high amount of rainfall (>600 mm per year).
 Lower mean annual temperature (<20ºC).
 The climate is favorable for biotic life.
 Rain-fed agriculture is possible.
 Free from tropical diseases.
 Attractive for human habitation and densely settled.
 make up nearly 56% of the area of the Ethiopia.
04/18/2024
the Ethiopian lowlands are characterized by:
 Fewer amounts of rainfall and higher temperature.
 High prevalence of tropical diseases.
 Lower population densities.
 Nomadic and semi-nomadic economic life.
 Vast plain lands favorable for irrigation agriculture along the lower river basins.
 Constitutes 44% of the area of the country
3.2. The Physiographic Divisions of Ethiopia
by the geologic processes of the Cenozoic Era, three major physiographic units can be identified
in Ethiopia. These are:
1. The Western highlands and lowlands
2. The South-eastern (Eastern) highlands and lowlands
04/18/2024
 3.2.1. The Western Highlands and Lowlands
It includes all the area west of the Rift Valley and the whole western half of Ethiopia.
This region is further subdivided into four groups of highlands (76.3%) and four groups of lowlands
(23.7%)
The Western Highlands
a. The Tigray Plateau
It extends from the Tekeze gorge in the south to central Eritrean highlands.
Mount Tsibet, Mount Ambalage and Mount Assimba
b. North Central Massifs
 is the largest in the western highlands.
 Much of its northern and southern limit follows the Abay and Tekeze gorges.
 It also accommodates the Lake Tana basin surrounded by plains of Fogera and Dembia in the north and
an upland
04/18/2024
plain in its south.
c. The Shewa Plateau/central highlands
 the Shewa Plateau is the smallest of the Western highlands.
 bounded by the Rift Valley in the east and southeast, by the Abay gorge in its
northern and western limit, and the Omo gorge in the south and west.
 Example Mount Abuye-Meda in Northern Shewa, Mount Guraghe
d. The Southwestern Highlands
o It extends from the Abay gorge in the north to the Kenya border and Chew Bahir
in the south
o consists of the highlands of Wellega, Illuababora, Jimma, Kaffa, Gamo and Gofa.
o is the wettest in Ethiopia.
o 04/18/2024
The region is the second largest in the Western highlands.
 The Western Lowlands
 This physiographic sub-region is further subdivided into four by the protruding ridges.
 These are Tekeze lowland, Abay-Dinder lowland, Baro lowland, and Ghibe lowland from north to south
3.2.2. The Southeastern Highlands and Lowlands
 is the second largest in terms of area. It accounts for 37% of the area of Ethiopia.
 The highlands make up 46% of the physiographic division while the rest is lowland.
The Southeastern Highlands
A. The Arsi-Bale-Sidama Highlands
 These highlands are found to the east of the Lakes Region.
 The wellknown mountains in this area are Mount Kaka (4,180 m.a.s.l), Mount Bada (4,139 m.a.s.l) and
Mount Chilalo (4,036 m.a.s.l).
 The highest mountain peaks in this region are Tulu-Demtu (4,377 m.a.s.l) and Mount Batu (4,307
m.a.s.l).
04/18/2024
B.The Hararghe Plateau
 This plateau is a north-easterly extension of the south-eastern highlands.
 It extends from the Chercher highlands in the south-west to Jigjiga in the east.
 It makes up 38% of the South Eastern highlands and 17.4% of the whole physiographic
region The highest mountain here is Mount Gara-Muleta (3,381 m.a.s.l).
The Southeastern Lowlands
 The Southeastern lowlands are located in the southeastern part of the country and they are
the most extensive lowlands in Ethiopia.
 They make up 54% of the area of the physiographic region and around one-fifth of the
country.
 This region is divided into Wabishebelle plain (60%) and the Ghenale Plain (40%).
04/18/2024
 3.2.3. The Rift Valley
 The Rift Valley is a tectonically formed structural depression.
 It extends from the Afar triangle in the north to Chew Bahir for about 1,700 km2 .
 It covers 18% of the area of Ethiopia.
 The Rift Valley is further subdivided into three physiographic sub-regions.
These are the
Afar Triangle,
 The Afar Triangle is the largest and widest part of the Rift Valley.
 It makes up 54% of the Rift Valley area.
 It is bounded by the high western and eastern escarpments in the west and east respectively, and by the Afar and
Aisha Horst in the northeast.
the Main Ethiopian Rift
 extends from Awash River in the north to Lake Chamo in the south.
the Chew Bahir Rift.
 The04/18/2024
Chew Bahir Rift This is the smallest and the southern-most part of the Rift Valley.
 3.3. The Impacts of Relief on Biophysical and Socioeconomic Condition
1. Agricultural practices
o Relief influences farm size and shape in that in an area of rocky terrain the
farmlands are small in size and fragmented and tend to be irregular in shape.
o Choice of farming techniques and farm tools are highly influenced by relief
o Relief influences crop production as some corps are well adapted to higher
altitudes (barley, wheat) and others to low altitude (sorghum, maize).
o The practice of animal husbandry is also influenced by relief as most
equines and sheep are reared in the higher altitudes and camels and goat are
well adapted to lower altitudes
04/18/2024
 Settlement pattern
 Highlands of Ethiopia that experience a temperate type of climatic condition that are mainly free

from most of the tropical diseases are densely settled.

 Rugged and difficult terrain hinders the development of settlement and its expansion.
 The highlands of Ethiopia are characterized by sedentary life and permanent settlements while

lowlands that are inhabited by pastoralists have temporary settlements.

 Transportation and communication
 The highly dissected nature of the landscape is a barrier to the development of internal surface

transportation that resulted in the long-term isolation of many communities

 The difficult terrain makes infrastructure development and maintenance costly.
 TV and radio communications are also highly influenced by relief.
04/18/2024
 The rugged topography rendered rivers less navigable due to the waterfalls, deep gorges and steep cliffs.
4. Hydroelectric power potential
 The great difference in altitude together with high rainfall created suitable
conditions for a very high potential for the production of hydroelectric power
in Ethiopia.
5. Socio-cultural feeling
 The rugged terrain as a result of excessive surface dissection resulted in the
long-term isolation of communities that led to the occurrence of cultural
diversity
 People who live in the highlands have been identifying themselves as
degegnas (mountaineers) and those who live in the lowlands as kollegnas
04/18/2024
 6. Impacts on climate
 The climate of Ethiopia is a result of the tropical position of the country and the great
altitudinal variation of the general topography.
 Highlands with higher amount of rainfall and lower rate of evapo-transpiration tend to
be moisture surplus compared to the moisture deficit lowlands.
7. Impacts on soil
 Steep mountain slopes provide low angle of rest, unstable surface materials and
subject to degradation processes and relatively form shallow and little developed soils.
8. Impacts on natural vegetation
 Relief through its effect on climate and hydrology affect the type of natural vegetation
grown in an area.
04/18/2024
 Chapter Four
Drainage Systems And Water Resource Of Ethiopia And The Horn

4.1 Introduction
 About 71% of the earth's total surface is covered by water bodies mainly by seas and
oceans.
 Around 0.7 % of the total land mass of Ethiopia is covered by water bodies.,
 the country's surface water potential is estimated to be 124.4 billion cubic meters (BCM).
 Therefore, many call Ethiopia, the water tower of “Eastern Africa”
 4.2. Major Drainage System of Ethiopia
 The flow of water through well-defined channel is known as drainage.
 A drainage system is made up of a principal river and its tributaries (the rivers that flow into
it).
 A river system begins at a place called the source or headwater and ends at a point called
04/18/2024
 The drainage pattern of an area is the result of the geological processes, nature and structure of
rocks, topography, slope, amount and the periodicity of the flow.

 A drainage basin is the topographic region from which a river and its tributaries collect both
the surface runoff and subsurface flow.

 It is bounded by and separated from other river basins by a water divide or topographic divide.

 The general patterns of major river basins in Ethiopia are determined by topographical
structures which can be clarified as:

 a. The topography of the outward sloping of the Western and South eastern plateaus

 b. The structural formation of the Rift Valley with its in-ward-sloping inclines resulting mainly
in an inland drainage system.
04/18/2024
 c. Faults and joints that structurally influence part of the courses of many rivers.
The Major Drainage Systems
 Ethiopia possesses three broadly classified drainage systems namely;
 Western
 Southeastern
 Rift Valley Drainage Systems.
 Western and the Southeastern drainage systems are separated by the Rift Valley system.
4.2.1. The Western Drainage (Mediterranean) Systems
 It the largest of all drainage systems draining 40 percent of the total area of the country and
carry 60 percent of the annual water flow.
 Most of the catchment area coextends with the westward sloping part of the western
highlands and western lowlands.

04/18/2024
 This drainage system comprises four major river basins namely;
 the Tekeze, Abay, Baro-Akobo, Ghibe (Omo).
 Unlike other river basins in the system, the Ghibe (Omo) flows southward.
 The Abay, Tekeze and Baro flow westward ultimately joining the Nile which finally ends at
Mediterranean Sea.

 Abay is The largest river both in volumetric discharge and coverage in the western drainage
systems

 It rises from Lake Tana (its origin from Sekela, Choke mountain) and joins the White Nile in
Khartoum, Sudan to form the Nile River.

 More than 60 streams drain the Abay within elevation ranging between 500 - 4261 meters
above sea level. The largest of these is Ghilgel Abay (Little Abay).
04/18/2024
 Tekeze and its tributaries, carrying 12 percent of the annual water flow of the region

 The basin has two main tributaries (Angereb and Goang) which rises in the central
highlands of Ethiopia.

 Tekeze River is termed Atbara in Sudan, which is a tributary of the Nile.

 The Baro-Akobo and Ghibe / Omo rivers drain the wettest highlands in the south and
southwestern Ethiopia. They carry 17 percent and 6 percent of the annual water flow
respectively

 The Baro together with Akobo forms the Sobat River in South Sudan.

 The Ghibe / Omo River finally empties in to the Chew-Bahir at the mouth of Lake
Turkana (an elongated Rift Valley lake) thereby forming an inland drainage
04/18/2024
4.2.2. The Southeastern Drainage (Indian Ocean) Systems

 Almost the entire physiographic region of southeastern part of Ethiopia is drained by the
southeastern drainage systems.

 The basin mainly drained by Wabishebelle and Ghenale, slopes south-eastwards across large
water deficient plains.

 Major highlands of this basin include plateaus of Arsi, Bale, Sidama and Harerghe.

 Wabshebelle and Ghenale rivers cross the border into Somalia, carrying 25 percent of the
annual water flow of Ethiopia.

 Ghenale, which has fewer tributaries but carries more water than Wabishebelle, reaches the
Indian Ocean.

 In Somalia
04/18/2024
it is named the Juba River.
 Wabishebelle is the largest river in terms catchment area.
 It is the longest river in Ethiopia.
4.2.3. The Rift Valley (Inland) Drainage System

 The Rift Valley drainage system is an area of small amount of rainfall, high evaporation and
small catchment area.

 The size of the drainage area is restricted by the outward sloping highlands, which starts
right from the edge of the escarpment.

 The Rift Valley drainage system is therefore left with the slopes of the cliff and the Rift
Valley floor itself as the catchment area.

 In the Rift Valley drainage systems, there is no one general flow direction, as the streams
flow in all directions.
04/18/2024
 Some of the Ethiopian rivers are given new names after they cross the
country’s borders.

Examples:

 River Abbay becomes Bue Nile in the Sudan.

 River Tekezze becomes River Athbara in the Sudan.

 River Ghenalle becomes River Juba in Somalia.

 River Baro becomes River Sobat in the Sudan

04/18/2024
4.3. Water Resources: Rivers, Lakes and Sub-Surface Water
4.3.1. The Ethiopian Rivers

 Ethiopia is endowed with many rivers.

 Majority of the rivers originate from highland areas and cross the Ethiopian
boundary.

 Ethiopian rivers form 12 major watersheds separating the Mediterranean Sea

from the Indian Ocean drainage systems

04/18/2024
04/18/2024
General Characteristics of Ethiopian Rivers

 Almost all major rivers originate from the highlands elevating more than 1500 meters
above sea level,

 Majority of Ethiopian rivers are trans-boundary,

 They have steep profiles. they arise from very high places and flow to the country’s borders
across lowlands.

 They flow through rapids and waterfalls along their courses.

 They show seasonal fluctuation in water volume. Due to seasonality of rainfall,

 They run through steep-sided river valleys and gorges along their courses,

 they serve as boundaries, both international and domestic (administrative units). Example
04/18/2024
tekeze with eritrea
4.3.2. The Ethiopian Lakes

 Almost all Ethiopian lakes are result of movement of internal parts of the earth/tectonic
process/ that took place during Quaternary period of Cenozoic era.

 Except few Ethiopian lakes, majority of lakes are located within the Rift Valley System.

 The lakes in the drainage are mainly formed on faulted depressions and are clustered along
the system forming linear pattern

 Lake Tana, the largest lake in Ethiopia occupies a shallow depression in the highlands.

 formed following slower sinking and reservoir by lava flow between Gojjam and Gonder
massifs.

 Ethiopia is also gifted with crater lakes. These include the lakes at and around Bishoftu,
Wonchi (near Ambo), Hayk (near Dessie) and the Crater Lake on top of Mount Zikwala.
04/18/2024
 Other types of lakes in Ethiopia are man-made such as Lakes Koka, Fincha and Melka
Wakena, and many other lakes dammed following hydroelectric power generation projects.

 Lake Abaya is the largest of all the lakes in the system.

 The southern tip of the Rift Valley forms the marshy land called the Chew Bahirw hich is
drained by Segan and Woito.

 Shala and Ziway are the shallowest and the deepest lakes in the central Ethiopian Rif

04/18/2024
04/18/2024
4.3.3. Subsurface (Ground) Water Resource of Ethiopia

 Ethiopia has lower ground water potential. However, there exists higher total exploitable
groundwater potential.

 Based on existing scanty knowledge, the groundwater potential of Ethiopia is estimated to be

between 12-30 BMC.

4.4. Water Resources Potentials and Development in Ethiopia

The followings are some of potential development uses of water resource of Ethiopia.

a) Hydro-electric Potential

• The exploitable potential of hydroelectric power is estimated at about 45000 megawatts.

• Currently Ethiopia is administering 14 hydroelectric power plants constructed on Lake Aba Samuel,
Koka, Tis Abay, Awash, Melka Wakena, Sor, Fincha, Gibe/Omo, Tana Beles and Tekeze, generating
04/18/2024
 The major problem related to the use of Ethiopian rivers for the generation of hydroelectric
power is

 The seasonal flow fluctuations and impact of climate change and variabilities.

 The severe erosion from the highlands

 sedimentation in the reservoirs is also a critical problem for hydroelectric power generation.

 b) Irrigation and Transportation

• Ethiopia's potential of irrigation is estimated to be 5.3 million hectare

• The rugged topography limits the uses of Ethiopian rivers both for irrigation and
transportation.

• In the highlands, steep slopes, rapids, waterfalls, narrow and deep valleys and gorges are
04/18/2024
 Majority of Ethiopian rivers are not suitable for transportation.

 The Baro at its lower course is the only navigable river.

 Comparatively, Ethiopian lakes are much suitable for transportation than rivers.

 Lake Tana and Abaya are relatively the most used for transportation

 c) Fishing and Recreation

 The majority of Ethiopian lakes are rich in fish.

 Currently the annual production of fish is estimated to be 31.5 thousand tons.

 Currently Lake Tana leads the potential by estimated 8,000-10,000 tons per year.

 Fish production from Lake Chamo is estimated at 4,500 tons per year.
04/18/2024
• more than 60% of fish supplies are coming from Ethiopian main Rift Valley
lakes.

• However, some of the lakes are currently vulnerable by sedimentation, invasive

species (water hyacinth), over exploitation and expansion of investments
around lakes.

• There are a variety of fish, birds and other aquatic life forms in the lakes.

• This and the attractive beauty of the lakes, the hot springs around them, the
great river gorges and the most impressive waterfalls make Ethiopian rivers
and lakes important recreational and tourist attractions.
04/18/2024
 Chapter Five
The Climate of Ethiopia and the Horn
5.1 Introduction

 The climate of Ethiopia mainly controlled by;

 the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and

 related atmospheric circulations

 by the complex topography of the country.

 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

 It is a low pressure zone formed by the convergence of Northeast Trade winds and the
Equatorial Westerlies.
04/18/2024
 Weather

 is the immediate or current state of the atmosphere composition including; temperature,

atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind speed and direction, cloudiness and precipitation.

 The day to day air condition including daily maximum and minimum temperatures, cloud
cover, humidity and other air conditions for the coming day. This information about relates
to weather.

 Climate

 refers the state of the atmosphere over long time periods, decades and more. It is the
composite of daily weather conditions recorded for long periods of time.

 It is the average weather conditions of a place or a region over a long period of time; such a
04/18/2024
as 30 years or more.
5.2. Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate

5.2.1. Controls of Weather and Climate

 The climate of any particular location on earth is determined by a combination of
many interacting factors
 These determining /interacting /factors are called controls of weather and climate or
climatic controls.
04/18/2024
 These determining factors include latitude, elevation, nearby water, ocean currents,
topography, vegetation, and prevailing winds and the global climate system influence local
climate.

a. Latitude

 It is the distance of a location of a place from the equator.

 It is the angular location of a place or point with reference to the direct rays of the sun.

 Latitudinal location of Ethiopia and the Horn resulted in;

• high average temperatures,

• high daily and small annual ranges of temperature,

• no 04/18/2024
significant variation in length of day and night between summer and winter.
b. Inclination of the Earth's Axis

 It makes an angle of about 66 ½ ° with the plane of its orbit around the sun, or about 23 ½ °
from the perpendicular to the ecliptic plane.

 This inclination determines the location of the Tropics of Cancer, Capricorn and the Arctic
and Antarctic Circles.

 As the earth revolves around the sun, this inclination produces a change in the directness of
the sun's rays; which in turn causes the directness of the sun and differences in length of day
and seasons.
 Equinoxes and Solstices

 An equinox is the instant of time when the sun strikes the plane of the Earth's equator.

 During
04/18/2024
this time, the length of day and night are equal.
 Equinox appears twice a year.

 The Vernal (spring) equinox:

 It is the day when the point of verticality/overhead/ of sun’s rays crosses the equator northwards.

 when the sun is exactly above the equator or Northern Hemisphere, the length of day and night
are equal.

 Vernal (spring) equinox marks the beginning of spring season.

 March 21 marks the offset of the vernal equinox

 The Autumn equinox:

 It appears when the visible sun moves south across the heavenly equator on 23rd of September.

 It marks the beginning of Autumn season.

04/18/2024
Solstice

 It appears when the sun far apart the equator

 is an event when the overhead sun appears to cross northern or southern points relative to the celestial equator resulting in
unequal length of days and nights in the hemispheres.

The summer Solstice:

 on June 21st, the northern hemisphere has maximum slope towards the sun experiencing longest daylight of the year.

 It is the astronomical first day of summer in the Northern Hemisphere.

 The sun is at its highest position in the noonday sky, directly above 23 ½ in the Tropic of Cancer.

The winter solstice:

 22nd of December is the day when the maximum southward inclination is attained in the Southern Hemisphere.

 In this event the sun travels shortest length causing longest night and shortest daylight.

 In the Southern Hemisphere, it occurs when the sun is directly over the Tropic of Capricorn, which is located at 23 ½ °
south04/18/2024
of the equator
c. Altitude/height/

 Altitude is the height of location of a place above the sea level.

 Under normal conditions, as temperature decrease elevation/height/ increasing.

 The average rate/level/ at which temperature changes per unit of altitudinal change is known
as lapse/gap/ rate.

 The lapse rate is limited to the lower layer of the atmosphere named as troposphere.

 The normal lapse rate is 6.5°C per kilometer rise in altitude.

 Three types of lapse rates are identified;

i. Dry adiabatic laps rate

• The rate of heating or cooling is about 10°C for every 1000 m of change in elevation.
• 04/18/2024
This rate applies only to unsaturated air(the relative humidity is less than 100 percent).
ii. Wet Adiabatic laps rate
• rising and saturated or precipitating air cools at a slower rate than air that is unsaturated.
• This process is called wet adiabatic temperature change.
iii. Environmental lapse rate or Atmospheric lapse late
• This refers to the actual, observed change of temperature with altitude change.

• The fact that air temperature is normally highest at low elevations next to the earth and
decreases with altitude.

5.3. Spatiotemporal Patterns and Distribution of Temperature and Rainfall in

Ethiopia

5.3.1. Spatiotemporal Distribution of Temperature

04/18/2024
 The spatial distribution of temperature in Ethiopia is primarily determined by altitude
and latitude. Thus temperature, decreases towards the central highlands.
 Mean annual temperature varies from over 30 0C in the tropical lowlands to less than 100c
at very high altitudes.
 The Bale Mountains are among highlands where lowest mean annual temperatures are
recorded.
 The highest mean maximum temperature is recorded in the Afar Depression.
 Moreover, lowlands of north-western, western and south-eastern Ethiopian experiences
mean maximum temperatures of more than 300C.
 Environmental influences have their own traditional expressions in Ethiopia and there are
local terms denoting temperature zones
04/18/2024
 There two factors that affect the spatial variation of temperature in Ethiopia.
These are: cloud cover and altitude
 the presence or absence of cloud cover produces spatial temperature variations in
Ethiopia and elsewhere in the Horn
 By day, it can prevent the full force of sun’s rays from heating the earth. By night, it can
prevent the heat absorbed by the earth from escaping into the atmosphere.
04/18/2024
5.3.2. Spatiotemporal Distribution of Rainfall
 Rainfall in Ethiopia is influenced by the position of Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

 The inter-annual oscillation/revolution/ of the surface position of the ITCZ causes a variation in the Wind
flow patterns over Ethiopia and the Horn

 It moves north and south of the equator following the position of the overhead sun.

 In July, its position is at the Tropic of Cancer.

 During this time, Ethiopia and the Horn come under the influence of the Equatorial Westerlies and
Easterlies.

 These winds bring moisture to the highlands but decrease their magnitude and length of rainy periods
northwards.

• In January, its position shifts to the Tropic of Capricorn leaving the region for the prevalence of the
Northeast Tradewinds that are non-moisture-laden.
04/18/2024
• In most of Ethiopia, western Eritrea and Somalia, it becomes dry season.

• In March and September, the position of the ITCZ is around the equator.

• Hence, the Equatorial Easterlies provide rain to the highlands of Somalia, and to the Central
and Southeastern lowlands and highlands of Ethiopia.
Seasonal or Temporal Variabilities

 The seasonal and annual rainfall variations are results of the macro-scale pressure
systems and monsoon flows which are related to the changes in the pressure systems

The temporal variabilities of rainfall are characterized by;

i. Summer (June, July, August)

 majority of Ethiopian regions, except lowlands in Afar and Southeast, receive rainfall
04/18/2024
 High pressure cells develop on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans around the tropic of
Capricorn although the Atlantic contributes a lot, the Indian Ocean is also source of rainfall.
 During this season, Ethiopia and the Horn come under the influence of the Equatorial
Westerlies (Guinea monsoon) and Easterlies.
 Hence, the Guinea monsoon and the South easterly winds are responsible for the rain in this
season
ii. Autumn (September, October and November)
 In autumn the ITCZ shifts towards the equator weakening the equatorial westerlies.
 During this season, the south easterlies from Indian Ocean showers the lowlands in
southeastern part of Ethiopia

04/18/2024
iii. Winter (December, January and February)
 In winter, the overhead sun is far south of equator.
 During this season, northeasterly winds originating from the landmass of Asia dominantly prevail
Ethiopian landmass.
 The northeasterly winds crossing the Red Sea carry very little moisture and supplies rain only to
the Afar lowlands and the Red Sea coastal areas
iv. Spring (March, April and May)
 In this season, the noonday sun is shining directly on the equator while shifting north from south.
 The shift of the ITCZ, results in longer days and more direct solar radiation providing warmer
weather for the northern world.
 the effect of the northeast trade wind is very much reduced.
 the southeasterlies from the Indian Ocean provide rain to the highlands of Somalia, and to the
04/18/2024
central and southeastern lowlands and highlands of Ethiopia.
Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia
 four rainfall regions can be identified in Ethiopia and the Horn. These are:
I. summer (kiremt) rainfall region
 except the southeastern and northeastern lowlands almost all parts of the country receive rainfall.
 The region is divided in to dry and wet summer rainfall regions.
 Hence, the wet corresponds to the area having rainfall of 1,000 mm or more.
 The High altitudes and the windward side experience such rainfall amount.
ii. All year-round rainfall region
 It is a rainfall region in the southwestern part of the country.
 The wetness of this region is particularly due to the domination of moist air currents of equatorial
Westerlies called the Guinea Monsoons.
 The average rainfall in the region varies from 1,400 to over 2,200 mm/year.
04/18/2024
iii. Autumn and Spring rainfall regions

 The region comprises areas receiving rain following the influence of southeasterly winds.

 South eastern lowlands of Ethiopia receive rain during autumn and spring seasons when
both the north easterlies and equatorial westerlies are weak.

 The south-easterlies bring rainfall from the Indian Ocean.

 About 60 percent of the rain is in autumn and 40 percent in spring.

 The average rainfall varies from less than 500 to 1,000 mm.

iv. Winter rainfall region

 This rainfall region receives rain from the northeasterly winds.

 the Red sea escarpments and some parts of the Afar region receive their main rain.
04/18/2024
5.4 Agro-ecological Zones of Ethiopia

 Ethiopia possesses diverse agro-climatic zones due to diversified altitude and climatic
conditions. Namely Bereha, Kolla, Woina Dega, Dega and Wurch.

The Wurch Zone

 It is an area having altitude higher than 3,200 meters above sea level and mean annual
temperature of less than 10oC include mountain systems of Ras Dashen, Guna, Megezez in
North Shoa, Batu, Choke, Abune Yoseph etc.

Dega Zone

 It is a zone of highlands having relatively higher temperature and lower altitude compared to the
wurch Zones.

 It is04/18/2024
long inhabited and has dense human settlement due to reliable rainfall for agriculture and
Weyna Dega Zone

 It has warmer temperature and moderate rainfall. It lies between 1500-2,300 meters above sea
level.

 It is the second largest zone covering more than 26% of the landmass of Ethiopia.

 The temperature and rainfall are highly suitable for majority of crops grown in Ethiopia.

 Hence, the zone includes most of the agricultural land. The Weyna Dega zone has also two
growing seasons.

Kolla Zone

• margins in south, southeast, west and northeastern part are mainly in this category.

• It is the hot lowlands with an altitudinal range of 500 to 1500 meters above sea level. Average
annual temperature ranges between 20oC and 30oC. Rainfall is highly variable from year to year.
04/18/2024
Bereha Zone

 Bereha is the hot arid climate of the desert lowlands.

 It is largely confined to lowland areas with altitude of lower than 500 meters.

 Around Danakil depression, the elevation goes below the sea level.

 Its average annual rainfall is less than 200 mm, and average annual temperature is over
27.5oC.

 Strong wind, high temperature, low relative humidity, and little cloud cover usually
characterize Bereha.

 Djibouti, majority of Somalia, and coastal areas of Eritrea are categorized under Kolla and
Bereha zones.
04/18/2024
5.5. Climate Change/Global Warming: Causes, Consequences and Response Mechanism
 Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g. using
statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that
persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer.

 It refers to any change in climate over time, due to either natural variability or human
activities

5.5.1. Current Trends of Climate in Ethiopia

 Ethiopian climate experiences extremes such as drought, flood etc. Ethiopia ranked 5th out
of 184 countries in terms of its risk of drought.

 12 extreme drought events were recorded between 1900 and 2010. Among these, seven of
the drought events occurred since 1980. The majority of these resulted in famines.
04/18/2024
Trends in Temperature Variability

 Over the last decades, Ethiopia has experienced climatic changes. Mean annual temperature
has shown 0.2°C to 0.28°C rise per decade over the last 40-50 years.

 A rise in average temperature of about 1.3°C has been observed between 1960 and 2006.

 Higher rise in temperature was noted in drier areas in northeast and southeast part of the
country.

 Notably the variability is higher in July-September. The number of hot days and hot nights
has also shown increment. Consequently, the country’s minimum temperature has increased
with 0.37°C to 0.4°C per decade

04/18/2024
Trends in Rainfall Variability

 Average precipitation has remained fairly stable over the last 50 years.

However, these averages do not reflect local conditions and makes it difficult to
detect long-term trends.

Rainfall variability is increasing (and predictability is decreasing) in many parts

of the country. In some regions, total average rainfall is showing decline.

Changes in temperature and rainfall increase the frequency and severity of

extreme events, such as floods and warming.

04/18/2024
5.5.2. Causes of Climate Change

It can be categorized as anthropogenic/manmade and natural causes.

A. Natural Causes

 It has many natural causes, such as variations in the energy budget, the position of Earth
relative to Sun, the position of continents relative to the equator, and even whether the
continents are together or apart.

some of the major natural causes:

Earth orbital changes:

 The earth is sloped at an angle of 23.5°C to the perpendicular plane of its orbital path.

 Changes in the tilt of the earth can lead to small but climatically important changes in the
04/18/2024
Energy Budget:

 Although the Sun’s energy output appears constant, small changes over an extended period
of time can lead to climate changes.

 Since the Sun was born, 4.5 billion years ago, the star has been very gradually increasing its
amount of radiation so that it is now 20% to 30% more intense than it was once.

Volcanic eruptions:

 volcanic eruption releases large volumes of Sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, water vapor,
dust, and ash into the atmosphere.

 The release of large volume of gases and ash can increase planetary reflectivity causing
atmospheric cooling.
04/18/2024
A. Anthropogenic Causes

•The growing influence of human activities on the environment is being increasing.

•The warming of earth planet in the past 50 years is majorly driven by human activities.

•The industrial activities that our modern civilization depends upon have raised atmospheric
carbon dioxide.

•Human induced greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have
caused increase in Earth's temperatures over the past 50 years.

•The decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, ruminant digestion and manure

management, synthetic compounds manufacturing, clearing of land for agriculture, industrial
activities, and other human activities have increased concentrations of greenhouse gases.
04/18/2024
•The major gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect include Water vapor, Carbon dioxide
(CO2), Methane, Nitrous oxide, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). .

5.5.3. Consequences of Climate Change.

•Some of the consequences of the climate change include:

Impacts on human health:

•heat related mortality and morbidity, greater frequency of infectious disease epidemics
following floods and storms, and substantial health effects following population displacement to
escape extreme weather events.

•Climate change also raises the occurrence of malaria.

04/18/2024
Impact on water resources:

• leads to melting of snow and glaciers that increases rise in sea level, increase drought and
floods, distorts wind flow pattern, decreases water table.

•More frequent and longer droughts reduce the amount of run-off into rivers, streams and lakes.

Impact on Agriculture:

•changes in temperature and rainfall patterns significantly affect agricultural production.

Climate change increases physiological stress and fodder quality and availability.

Impact on Ecosystem:

•it affects the success of species, population, and community adaptation.

•The rate of climatic warming may exceed the rate of shifts in certain range species, these
04/18/2024
species could be seriously affected or even disappear because they are unable to resist.
•5.5.4. Climate Response Mechanisms

• There are three major response mechanisms to climate change namely;

mitigation, adaptation and resilience.

Mitigation and its Strategies

•Mitigation measures are those actions that are taken to reduce and control greenhouse gas
emissions changing the climate.

•Moreover, it implies reducing the flow of heat trapping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere,
either by reducing sources of these gases or enhancing the “sinks” that accumulate and store
these gases (such as the oceans, forests and soil).

•There are some mitigation measures that can be taken to avoid the increase of pollutant
04/18/2024
emissions.
•Practice Energy efficiency

• Increase the use of renewable energy such as solar

• Efficient means of transport implementation: electric public transport, bicycle, shared cars etc.

Adaptation and its Strategies

• Adaptation is simply defined as adapting to life in a changing climate.

•It involves adjusting to actual or expected future climate.

•The goal is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful effects of climate change such as extreme
weather events or food insecurity.

•Some of the major adaptation strategies include:

• building flood defenses,

04/18/2024
•plan for heatwaves and higher temperatures,

• installing water-permeable pavements to better deal with floods and storm water

• improve water storage and use are some of measures taken by cities and towns.

• landscape restoration and reforestation,

• flexible and diverse cultivation to be prepared for natural catastrophes

• preventive and precautionary measures (evacuation plans, health issues, etc.

04/18/2024
 Chapter Six
Soils, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources of Ethiopia and the Horn

04/18/2024
04/18/2024
04/18/2024
04/18/2024
04/18/2024
04/18/2024
04/18/2024
04/18/2024
04/18/2024
04/18/2024
04/18/2024