PSYCHOLOGY 2E

Chapter 3 BIOPSYCHOLOGY
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BIOPSYCHOLOGY

Biopsychology explores the biological mechanisms that underlie behavior.

Among many things, it studies:

- Genetics - focusing on how inherited genes can affect not just the physiological,
but psychological traits of a person.

- The structure and function of the nervous system.

- How the nervous system interacts with the endocrine system.

Different brain imaging techniques provide scientists with insight into

different aspects of how the human brain functions. Left to right, PET
scan (positron emission tomography), CT scan (computed tomography),
and fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) are three types of
scans. (credit “left”: modification of work by Health and Human Services
Department, National Institutes of Health; credit “center”: modification of
work by “Aceofhearts1968”/Wikimedia Commons; credit “right”:
modification of work by Kim J, Matthews NL, Park S.)
HUMAN GENETICS

Studying human genetics can help researchers understand the biological basis
underlying the different behaviors, thoughts and reactions of humans.

- Why do two people infected by the same disease have different outcomes?

- Are there genetic components to psychological disorders, such as depression?

- How are genetic diseases passed through family lines?

THEORY OF EVOLUTION

Charles Darwin explored the concept of inheritance of traits throughout

generations in his theory of evolution through natural selection.
- The organisms that are better suited for their environment will survive
and reproduce, while those that are poorly suited for their environment
will die off.
Characteristics and behaviors that impact survival and reproduction:
- Those that help protect against predators.
- Those that increase access to food.
- Those that help to offspring alive.

”It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor

the most intelligent that survives. It is the one that is
most adaptable to change.” – Charles Darwin
CHARLES DARWIN

(a) In 1859, Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution by natural selection in his
book, On the Origin of Species.
(b) The book contains just one illustration: this diagram that shows how species evolve
over time through natural selection.
THEORY OF EVOLUTION
So why have certain genetic diseases that cause people to die not become less
common?

Example: Sickle cell anemia

- A genetic condition in which red blood
cells take on a crescent-like shape
affecting how they function.
- Causes many people to die at an early
age but it is still common among
people of African descent.
- Carriers of only one copy of the sickle
cell gene are thought to be immune
from malaria, a deadly disease which
is common in Africa. Normal blood cells travel freely through
the blood vessels, while sickle-shaped
- In this example, carrying the gene cells form blockages preventing blood
flow.
makes a person better suited for their
environment.
GENETIC VARIATION
- The genetic difference between individuals.
- Contributes to a species’ adaptation to its environment.
- Begins when an egg (containing 23 chromosomes) is fertilized by a sperm
(containing 23 chromosomes).
Chromosome - long strand of genetic information known as DNA.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base
pairs.
In each chromosome, sequences of DNA make up genes.
Gene - sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical
characteristics known as traits (eye color, hair color etc).
A gene may have multiple possible variations or alleles (a specific version of a
gene).
- A specific gene may code for hair color and the different alleles of that gene
affect what the hair color will be.
GENOTYPE VS PHENOTYPE

(a) Genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an individual based on the genetic material (DNA) inherited
from one’s parents.
(b) Phenotype describes an individual’s observable characteristics, such as hair color, skin color, height,
and build. (credit a: modification of work by Caroline Davis; credit b: modification of work by Cory
Zanker)
DOMINANT V RECESSIVE ALLELES
The majority inheritable traits are controlled by more than just one gene and in such
cases, they are known as polygenic traits.
Some traits are controlled by one gene.
Alleles can be dominant or recessive. In the example below, A is the dominant allele
for flower color (purple) and a is the recessive allele for flower color (white).
Possession of a dominant allele will always result in expression of that phenotype.
This could be inherited from one parent (Aa) or both parents (AA).
The phenotype of a recessive allele will only be physically expressed if the person is
homozygous for that allele, meaning they inherited a recessive allele from BOTH
parents (aa).

Heterozygous - consisting of two

different alleles (Aa).
Homozygous - consisting of two
identical alleles (AA/aa).

(Credit: B4FA)
PUNNETT SQUARES

(a) A Punnett square is a tool used to predict how genes will interact in the production of offspring. The capital B
represents the dominant allele, and the lowercase b represents the recessive allele. In the example of the cleft chin,
where B is cleft chin (dominant allele), wherever a pair contains the dominant allele, B, you can expect a cleft chin
phenotype. You can expect a smooth chin phenotype only when there are two copies of the recessive allele, bb.
(b) A cleft chin, shown here, is an inherited trait.
PUNNETT SQUARES
In this Punnett square, N represents the
dominant allele, and p represents the
recessive allele that is associated with
PKU.
If two individuals mate who are both
heterozygous (Np) for the allele
associated with PKU, their offspring have
a 25% chance of expressing the PKU
phenotype.
Where do harmful genes like PKU
come from?
Some are the result of mutations.
Mutations - sudden, permanent change
in a gene.
Many mutations are harmful but some In this Punnett square, N represents the normal
can also be beneficial. allele, and p represents the recessive allele that
is associated with PKU. If two individuals mate
who are both heterozygous for the allele
associated with PKU, their offspring have a 25%
chance of expressing the PKU phenotype.
GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS
Nature and nurture work together like complex pieces of a human puzzle.
The interaction of our environment and genes makes us the individuals we are.

There are many different ways to look at this interaction:

Range of reaction - asserts our genes set the boundaries within which we can
operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that
range we will fall.
Genetic environmental correlation - view of gene-environment interaction that
asserts our genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the
expression of our genes.
Epigenetics - study of gene-environment interactions such as how the same
genotype leads to different phenotypes.
NEURON STRUCTURE
The function of a neuron is aided by specific aspects of its structure.
Its semi-permeable membrane allows smaller molecules or molecules without an
electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules.
Incoming electrical signals from other neurons are received by the dendrites which
then send the signal down the axon.
FIGURE 3.8

This illustration shows a prototypical neuron, which is being myelinated.

Axons are covered in a myelin sheath made of a fatty substance that
insulates axons and allows the signal to travel down the axon quicker.
At the end of the axons are terminal buttons which contain synaptic
vessels (storage sites for chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters).
THE SYNAPSE

(a) The synapse is the space between the terminal button of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron.
(b) In this pseudo-colored image from a scanning electron microscope, a terminal button (green) has been
opened to reveal the synaptic vesicles (orange and blue) inside. Each vesicle contains about 10,000
neurotransmitter molecules. (credit b: modification of work by Tina Carvalho, NIH-NIGMS; scale-bar data
from Matt Russell)
FIGURE 3.10

At resting potential, Na + (blue pentagons) is more highly concentrated outside the cell in the
extracellular fluid (shown in blue), whereas K + (purple squares) is more highly concentrated near
the membrane in the cytoplasm or intracellular fluid. Other molecules, such as chloride ions
(yellow circles) and negatively charged proteins (brown squares), help contribute to a positive net
charge in the extracellular fluid and a negative net charge in the intracellular fluid.
ACTION POTENTIAL

1. Neurotransmitters from nearby neurons attach to receptors on dendrites

causing the membrane potential to change.
• Depolarization – membrane potential becomes less negative making
the neuron more likely to fire (excitation).
• Hyperpolarization – membrane potential becomes more negative
making the neuron less likely to fire (inhibition).
2. If the level of charge reaches the threshold of excitation an action potential
will occur. Ion channels open causing Na+ to rush into the cell and the
inside to momentarily become more positive.
• Threshold of excitation – level of charge in the membrane that
causes the neuron to become active.
• Action Potential – an electrical signal.
• Action potentials act on an all-or-none principle - the incoming signal is
either sufficient to reach the threshold of excitation or it is not.
ACTION POTENTIAL

During the action potential, the electrical charge across the membrane changes
dramatically.
REUPTAKE
Once an action potential has occurred, excess neurotransmitters in the synapse
either drift away, are broken down or are reabsorbed.
Reuptake involves moving a neurotransmitter from the synapse back into the axon
terminal from which it was released.

Reuptake involves moving a neurotransmitter from the synapse back into the axon
terminal from which it was released.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS

Neurotransmitter – chemical messenger of the nervous system.

Different neurons release different types of neurotransmitters that have many
different functions.
Biological perspective - view that psychological disorders like depression and
schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter
systems.
Acetylcholine – muscle action and memory.
Beta-endorphin – pain and pleasure.
Dopamine – mood, sleep, and learning.
Norepinephrine – Heart, intestines, and alertness.
Serotonin – mood and sleep.
DRUGS
Psychotropic medication - drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring
neurotransmitter balance.
Agonist - drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter.
Antagonist - drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given
neurotransmitter.

Agonist/antagonist drugs are prescribed

to correct neurotransmitter imbalances.
E.g. Parkinson’s disease is associated
with low levels of dopamine. Dopamine
agonists are often prescribed as one
form of treatment.
Schizophrenia on the other hand is
associated with too much dopamine.
Many antipsychotic drugs are therefore
dopamine antagonists.
PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is divided into two major parts:

(a) the Central Nervous System and
(b) the Peripheral Nervous System.
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Peripheral nervous system is made up of two different parts:

1. Somatic nervous system - relays sensory and motor information to and from the
CNS.
2. Autonomic nervous system - controls our internal organs and glands and can be
divided into the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems.
- Sympathetic nervous system - involved in stress-related activities and functions;
prepares us for fight or flight.
- Fight or flight response - activation of the sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and
heightened sensory capacity so that we might fight off a given threat or run
away to safety.
- Parasympathetic nervous system - associated with routine, day-to-day
operations of the body under relaxed conditions.
- Rest and restore response – relaxes the body after fight or flight (aka rest
and digest).
The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems complement each other to
maintain homeostasis, a state of equilibrium in the body.
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

(Credit: Indiana.edu)
THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEMS

The sympathetic and

parasympathetic divisions of the
autonomic nervous system have the
opposite effects on various systems.
THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD
THE BRAIN
- Comprised of billions of interconnected neurons and glia.
- Bilateral (two-sided).
- Can be separated into distinct lobes but all areas interact with one another.
THE SPINAL CORD
- Delivers messages to and from the brain.
- Has its own system of reflexes.
- The top merges with the brain stem and the bottom ends just below the ribs
- Functionally organized into 30 segments, each connected to a specific part of the
body through the PNS.
- Sensory nerves bring messages in and up to the brain; motor nerves send
messages out to the muscles and organs.
- In moments of survival, automatic reflexes allow motor commands to be initiated
without sending signals from sensory nerves to the brain first, allowing for very
quick reactions.
THE TWO HEMISPHERES

Lateralization - concept that each

hemisphere of the brain is associated
with specialized functions.
- The left hemisphere controls the
right side of the body.
- The right hemisphere controls the
left side of the body.

The surface of the brain is covered with gyri and sulci. A deep sulcus is called a fissure,
such as the longitudinal fissure that divides the brain into left and right hemispheres.
(credit: modification of work by Bruce Blaus)
THE CORPUS CALLOSUM

(a, b) The corpus callosum connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain. (c) A
scientist spreads this dissected sheep brain apart to show the corpus callosum
between the hemispheres. (credit c: modification of work by Aaron Bornstein)
FOREBRAIN, MIDBRAIN & HINDBRAIN

The brain and its parts can be divided into three main categories: the forebrain,
midbrain, and hindbrain.
FOREBRAIN STRUCTURES

The forebrain is the largest part of the brain.

It contains:
- The cerebral cortex – higher level processes
- Thalamus - sensory relay
- Hypothalamus - homeostasis
- Pituitary gland – master gland of the endocrine system
- Limbic system – emotion and memory circuit
CEREBRAL CORTEX:
LOBES OF THE BRAIN

Cerebral cortex - surface of the brain that is associated with out highest mental
capabilities such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language and
memory.
It can be broken up into four lobes, each with a different function.
 THE FRONTAL LOBE

Involved in executive functioning (planning, organization, judgement, attention,

reasoning), motor control, emotion, and language.
It contains:
The Motor cortex - strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement.
The Prefrontal cortex - responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning.
Broca’s area - region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language
production.
- Damage to Broca’s area leads to difficulties producing language.
.
Damage to the Frontal Lobe: Phineas Gage
While working as a railroad foreman, an accident caused an iron rod to penetrate
through Gage’s skull and frontal lobe. After the accident, people noticed changes in his
personality.
Before the accident - Well-mannered and soft-spoken.
After the accident - Started behaving in odd and inappropriate ways.
These changes were consistent with loss of impulse control (a function of the frontal
lobe).
PHINEAS GAGE

(a) Phineas Gage holds the iron rod that penetrated his skull in an 1848 railroad construction
accident.
(b) Gage’s prefrontal cortex was severely damaged in the left hemisphere. The rod entered Gage’s
face on the left side, passed behind his eye, and exited through the top of his skull, before
landing about 80 feet away. (credit a: modification of work by Jack and Beverly Wilgus)
THE PARIETAL LOBE

Involved in processing various

sensory and perceptual
information.
Contains the primary
somatosensory cortex.
Somatosensory cortex –
essential for processing sensory
information from across the body,
such as touch, temperature, and
pain.
- Organized topographically.
THE TEMPORAL LOBE
Associated with hearing, memory, emotion and some aspects of language.
Located on the side of the head (near the temples).
It contains:
The Auditory cortex - strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for
processing auditory information.

Wernicke’s area -
important for speech
comprehension.
- Damage to Wernicke’s
area results in difficulty
understanding
language.

Figure 3.21 Damage to either Broca’s area or Wernicke’s area can result in language deficits. The
types of deficits are very different, however, depending on which area is affected.
FIGURE 3.21

Damage to either Broca’s area or Wernicke’s area can result in language deficits. The
types of deficits are very different, however, depending on which area is affected.
THE OCCIPITAL LOBE

Associated with visual processing.

Contains the primary visual cortex which is responsible for interpreting incoming
visual information.
Organized retinotopically.

(Credit: The brain made simple)

THE THALAMUS

The thalamus serves as the relay center of the brain where most senses (excluding
smell) are routed before being directed to other areas of the brain for processing.

The thalamus serves as the relay center of the brain where most senses are routed for
processing.
THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
The Limbic system is involved in mediating emotional response and memory.
It is made up of a number of different structures, some of the most important ones
being:

Amygdala - involved in our experience

of emotion and tying emotional meaning
to our memories. Involved in processing
fear.
Hippocampus - structure associated
with learning and memory (in particular
spatial memory).
Hypothalamus – regulates homeostatic
processes including body temperature,
appetite and blood pressure.
FIGURE 3.23

The limbic system is involved in mediating emotional response and memory.

THE MIDBRAIN

Reticular formation - important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal,

alertness, and motor activity.
Substantia Nigra - where dopamine is produced; involved in control of movement.
Ventral tegmental area (VTA) - where dopamine is produced; associated with mood,
reward, and addiction.
Degeneration of the Substantia Nigra and VTA is involved in Parkinson’s disease.
FIGURE 3.24

The substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area (VTA) are located in the midbrain.
THE HINDBRAIN
Medulla - controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart
rate.
Pons - connects the brain and the spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity
during sleep.
Cerebellum - controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it
is thought to be important in processing some types of memory.
These 3 structures combined are known as the brain stem.
FIGURE 3.25

The pons, medulla, and cerebellum make up the hindbrain.

BRAIN IMAGING

Techniques Involving Radiation

CT Scan
PET Scan
Techniques Involving Magnetic Fields
MRI
FMRI
Techniques Involving Electrical Activity
EEG
COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY (CT) SCAN
Involves x-rays and creates an image through x-rays passing through varied densities
within the brain.
A CT scan be used to show brain tumors.

A CT scan can be used to show brain tumors. (a) The image on the left shows a healthy
brain, whereas (b) the image on the right indicates a brain tumor in the left frontal lobe.
(credit a: modification of work by “Aceofhearts1968”/Wikimedia Commons; credit b:
modification of work by Roland Schmitt et al)
 POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET) SCAN
A PET scan is helpful for showing activity
in different parts of the brain. (credit:
Health and Human Services Department,
National Institutes of Health)

Involves injecting individuals with a

mildly radioactive substance and
monitoring changes in blood flow to
different regions of the brain.
A PET scan is helpful for showing
activity in different parts of the brain.

This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax,
Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources.
MRI AND FMRI

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) -

magnetic fields used to produce a
picture of the tissue being imaged.
Functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) - MRI that show
changes in metabolic activity over
time.

An fMRI shows activity in the brain over

time. This image represents a single
frame from an fMRI. (credit: modification
of work by Kim J, Matthews NL, Park S.)
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY (EEG)
Involves recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp.
Using caps with electrodes, modern EEG research can study the precise timing of
overall brain activities by tracking amplitude and frequency of brainwaves.

Using caps with electrodes, modern EEG research can study the precise timing of
overall brain activities. (credit: SMI Eye Tracking)
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
A series of glands that produce hormones to regulate normal body functions.
The Hypothalamus links the nervous system and endocrine system by controlling
the pituitary gland.

Pituitary gland – serves as the master

gland, controlling the secretions of all other
glands.
Thyroid – secretes Thyroxine which
regulates growth, metabolism and appetite
Adrenal gland - secretes hormones
involved in the stress response.
Gonad - secretes sex hormones, which are
important for successful reproduction, and
regulate sexual motivation and behavior.
Pancreas - secretes hormones that regulate
blood sugar.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The major glands of the endocrine system are shown.

 NEUROTRANSMITTERS

Major Neurotransmitters and How They Affect Behavior

Neurotransmitter Involved in Potential Effect on Behavior

Acetylcholine Muscle action, memory Increased arousal, enhanced cognition

Beta-endorphin Pain, pleasure Decreased anxiety, decreased tension

Dopamine Mood, sleep, learning Increased pleasure, suppressed appetite

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) Brain function, sleep Decreased anxiety, decreased tension

Glutamate Memory, learning Increased learning, enhanced memory

Norepinephrine Heart, intestines, alertness Increased arousal, suppressed appetite

Serotonin Mood, sleep Modulated mood, suppressed appetite

This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax,
Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources.