Lecture : sensation

Perceiving the World

Sensory systems
What are our senses?
How do we make meaningful interpretations from what our senses take in?
 Senses
Seeing
Smell
Hearing
Taste
Touch
We have an amazing ability to distinguish different sensations. For
example, a touch sensation does not “feel” the same as a “hearing”
sensation.
Sensation
INPUT ABOUT THE PHYSICAL WORLDPROVIDED BY OUR SENSORY RECEPTORS

EXAMPLE: WE CONVERT PHOTONS ,TEMP ETC TO LIGHT, HOT AND COLD TEMPERATURE ETC…
IT ENCODES THE PHYSICAL WORLD INTO PSYCHOLOGICAL WORLD

PERCEPTION : THE PERCEPTION THROUGH WHICH WE SELECT ,ORGANIZE AND INTERPRET

 Sensory Coding
Our senses “boil down” floods of information into a stream of useful
data.
After our senses analyze information, our senses use sensory
“coding.”
Sensory coding: important features of the world are converted into
neural messages understood by the brain. Also known as “
transduction.”
Exercise: Put pressure on your eyes, hold for a few seconds. The
pressure you put on your eyes is “encoded” into visual features…not
pressure. This is because the retina encodes visual information.
SENSORY PROCESSES
HUMAN BEINGS AT ALL TIMES ARE BOMBARDED WITH ARNAGE OF INFORMATION . EVEN AT
THE CALMEST CIRCUMSTANCES ,A TAPESTRY OF INFORMATION BOMBARDS US . LIVING
ORGANISMS NEED TO ASSIMILATE AND INTERPRET AT LEAST SOME OF THESE INFORMATION TO
APPROPRIATELY INTERACT WITH THE WORLD . THIS IS TWO PART PROCESS
1.WHICH ASPECTS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION REGISTER WITH OUR SENSES AND
WHICH DON’T?
HOW THESE SENSE ORGANIS WORK TO EFFECTIVELY ACQUIRE THE INFORMATION THAT IS
ACQUIRABLE?
SENSATIONS
At the psychological level are fundamental raw experiences associated with stimuli ( sensations
of sight can register coloured ,shaped objects) . The perceptual level is the integration and
meaningful interpretation of these raw sensory experiences.
Characteristics of sensory modality
Two characteristics are common to all sensory modality
1. sensitivity- describes sensory modalities at psychological level- which means the kind of
quality of information it is collecting ,so that is what is sensitivity
Sensory coding- describes sensory modalities at the biological level
sensitivity
In psychology sensitivity is expressed using the concept of threshold . There are two types of threshold

A) Absolute threshold – the minimum magnitude of a stimulus that can be reliably discriminated from
no stimulus at all ( e.g ,the weakest light can be discriminated from darkness)
Ascending and descending experiment- method of limits

Psychological procedures are experimental techniques for measuring the relation between the physical
magnitude of some stimulus ( physical intensity of light) and the resulting psychological response (how
bright the light appears to be)
Differential threshold is the amount of the stimulus change that should be made so that people are
able to see the change
 Senses
The minimum stimulation necessary to detect a particular stimulus
( light, sound, pressure, taste, odor ) is called its absolute threshold.
Example: we can feel a bee falling on our cheek, or smell a drop of
perfume in a small apartment
How loud does someone have to call out your name before you can
hear it.
 Absolute Thresholds
We don't notice radio waves, x-rays, or the microscopic
parasites crawling on our skin. We don't sense all the odors
around us or taste every individual spice in our gourmet
dinner. We only sense those things we are able too since we
don't have the sense of smell like a bloodhound or the
sense of sight like a hawk; our thresholds are different from
these animals and often even from each other.
2) Differential threshold- by how much stimulus intensity be raised from some standard ,defined
to be some arbitrary level, to distinguish the new, higher level from the base level

Just noticeable difference- is the minimum difference in stimulus magnitude necessary to tell
two stimuli apart
Two German scientists – Heinrich Weber a physiologist and Gustav Fechner a physicist ,were one
of the first people to conduct experiments on thresholds. Their seminal finding was- the larger
the value of the standard stimulus ,the less sensitive the sensory system is to change in intensity
Across a wide range of stimulus circumstances the relationship can be explained as- the intensity
by which the standard stimulus must be increased to be noticed is propotional to the intensity
of the standard
Signal detection theory
A theory suggesting that there are no absolute threshold for sensations . Rather detection of
stimuli depends on their physical energy and on internal factors such as the relative costs and
benefits associated with detecting their presence

Or in simple words we can say that information consists of signals and noise where signal refers
to important aspect of information and noise refers to unimportant aspect of information
Signal detection theory
Hits and false alarms
False alarms – signal falsely detected where there is only noise
Hits – signal correctly detected
Sensitivity of sensory organ indicated by differences in hits and false alarms
Sensitivity and bias
Useful characteristic of signal detection analysis –allows process of detecting stimulus to be
separated into two numbers- one representing sensitivity to signal and one representing bias in
stating “ signal present”
Experiment
Condition

1. light present ---yes or no ( physical world)

2. light sensed- yes or no ( psychological world)

4 conditions arise– 1 st – light present ( yes) and I sensed it---then it is a hit

2nd- light not present and I don’t sense it------then it is a correct rejection
3rd- light present and I don’t sense it --- miss
4th – light not present ….and I sense it –false alarm
Characteristics of sensory modalities

Sensory coding : two fundamental issues for sensory system:

1. how to translate incoming physical information and how to encode aspects of physical
information to corresponding neural representation
2. Specialized cells called Receptors ( specialized neurons) detect stimulus ( are activated ) and
pass an electrical signal to connecting neurons through to cortex where the electrical signal
results in conscious sensory experience
Session-2 sensory adaptation :it feels
great once you get used to it”
Sensory adaptation : reduced sensitivity to unchanging stimuli over time.

Sensory adaptation is the phenomenon whereby the sensitivity of our senses decreases over
time in response to a constant or repetitive stimulus. This allows our brain to filter out irrelevant
information and focus on changes in the environment that are more important or potentially
dangerous
Types of sensory adaptation
There are several types of sensory adaptation, including:

Visual adaptation: The ability of the eye to adjust to changes in lighting conditions, such as going
from a bright to a dark environment.

Auditory adaptation: The ability of the ear to adjust to changes in sound intensity, such as
adapting to a loud concert or a quiet library.
Tactile adaptation: The ability of the skin to adjust to changes in pressure, such as adapting to
the sensation of clothing against the skin.

Olfactory adaptation: The ability of the nose to adjust to changes in smell intensity, such as
adapting to the smell of a perfume.

Gustatory adaptation: The ability of the tongue to adjust to changes in taste intensity, such as
adapting to a strong flavor
Sensory adaptation is thought to occur at both the peripheral and central nervous system levels.
At the peripheral level, receptors in the sensory organs become less responsive to a constant
stimulus. At the central level, the brain becomes less responsive to the signals it receives from
the sensory organs.
However, sensory adaptation is not always a desirable phenomenon.
For example, it can lead to a lack of awareness of dangerous environmental changes, such as a
gas leak, if the odor becomes less noticeable over time. Additionally, sensory adaptation can
lead to errors in judgment, such as when the eyes adapt to low light conditions and
underestimate the brightness of a light source
 The Amazing Eye
Light is one form of electromagnetic waves which travel around us.
The transparent covering on the front surface of the eyeball that bends
light rays inward toward the pupil is called the CORNEA.
 The EYE
The cornea bends light inward and usher it into the pupil which is
the small dark opening in the color of the iris. ( the pupil is a hole in
your eye ). The iris controls the contraction of this pupil. It is an
involuntary reflex.
In very bright light, it can contract to the size of a head pin.
In dim light, ( dark) it dilates ( that is WIDENS) to the size of a
pencil eraser. Why do you think this is so?
Wide Pupils More Attractive
Light : the physical stimulus for vision
Wavelength : the peak to peak distance in a sound or light wave
Hue : the colour that we experience due to the dominant wavelength of a
light
Brightness : The physical intensity of light
Saturation : The degree of concentration of the hue of light we experience
saturation as the purity of a colour
Light is the physical stimulus that allows us to see. It is a form of
electromagnetic radiation that travels in waves and has both particle-like
and wave-like properties. The human eye is sensitive to a small portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum, known as the visible spectrum, which
ranges from approximately 400 to 700 nanometers in wavelength.
Light is produced by sources such as the sun, light bulbs, and electronic
displays, and it is reflected, transmitted, or absorbed by objects in the
environment. When light enters the eye, it passes through the cornea, the
lens, and the vitreous humor, which focus the light onto the retina, a thin
layer of tissue at the back of the eye
The retina contains photoreceptor cells called rods and cones, which are
responsible for converting light into electrical signals that are sent to the
brain via the optic nerve. Rods are sensitive to low levels of light and are
responsible for vision in dim lighting conditions, while cones are
responsible for color vision and visual acuity in bright lighting conditions
The color of light is determined by its wavelength, with shorter
wavelengths appearing blue and longer wavelengths appearing red. The
brightness of light is determined by its intensity, which is measured in
units called lux or lumens. The human eye is capable of adapting to a wide
range of lighting conditions, from bright sunlight to dim moonlight
n addition to providing the physical stimulus for vision, light also plays an
important role in regulating our circadian rhythms, or our internal
biological clock. Exposure to bright light in the morning can help reset
our sleep-wake cycle, while exposure to blue light from electronic devices
at night can interfere with our ability to fall asleep.

Overall, light is a crucial component of the visual system and has a

significant impact on our daily lives, both in terms of our ability to see and
our overall health and well-being.
Basic functions of the visual system: acuity, dark adaptation, and eye
movements
The visual system is responsible for processing visual information from
the environment and translating it into meaningful perceptions. It is a
complex system that involves several structures and processes, including
the eyes, optic nerves, and visual cortex in the brain
Visual acuity: The ability to see fine details clearly. This is dependent on
the sharpness of the image projected onto the retina, as well as the
sensitivity and resolution of the photoreceptor cells in the retina. Visual
acuity is typically measured using a Snellen chart, which consists of letters
or symbols of different sizes
Dark adaptation: The ability to see in low-light conditions after being
exposed to bright light. This is a process that takes several minutes and
involves the regeneration of the photopigments in the rods and cones of
the retina. Dark adaptation is important for tasks such as driving at night
or navigating in dimly lit environments
Eye movements: The ability to move the eyes to scan the environment and
maintain visual stability. Eye movements are controlled by several
structures in the brainstem and are essential for tasks such as reading,
driving, and tracking moving objects.
Other important functions of the visual system include color vision,
depth perception, and visual processing, which involves the analysis and
interpretation of visual information in the brain. These functions are all
closely interconnected and rely on the coordinated activity of multiple
brain regions and neural pathways.
Saccadic movements : quick movements of the movements of the eyes for
one point of fixation to another
Trichromatic theory : A theory of color perception suggesting that we
have three types of cones each
 Depth Perception
Depth Perception: is the ability to see three dimensional space and to
accurately judge distances. You wouldn’t be able to drive a car or ride a
bicycle, play catch, etc.
The world would look like a flat surface!
Images cast on the retina do not contain depth. They are flat, just like a
photograph. So how do we perceive depth????
The Visual Cliff Experiment
Researchers Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk wanted to test depth
perception in children
Built a special table that had a big drop on one side. They called it the
“visual cliff.”
Different size of the pattern was a clue for depth.
Whole table was then covered by a clear glass top, so that a baby could
safely be placed on or crawl across the “deep” side. ( video )
Youtube.com Visual Cliff ( 1950s)
Joseph Campos-Visual Cliff
 Visual Cliff Results
Infants tested in this study ranged from 6 months to 14 months old.
81 percent refused to crawl over the deep side.
They interpreted this as a very early sign of depth perception.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p6cqNhHrMJA
 Hearing
How do humans hear?
By picking up sound waves in the air.
Sound waves are invisible ripples of high and low air pressure created by
objects that vibrate or shake rapidly to and fro.
You can “feel” sound waves if you’ve ever put your hand on a loud,
booming speaker.
 Sounds Waves
A little science!
Sound waves have amplitude ( which is the height of each wave and
frequency which is the number of waves per second).
Low pitch sounds have low frequency, and low amplitude
High pitch sounds high amplitude and high frequency. Illustration.
 How we hear!
The ear converts this type of energy-in this case the energy of
sound waves, into tiny electrical nerve signals.
Sound waves are transmitted into the cochlea, a snail shaped tube
in the ear. There are tiny hairs in this cochlea that are stimulated.
These vibrations are then transmitted to the brain as sound.
Exposure to loud noises can damage the ear so be careful….jack
hammers, airports, etc.
Pitch Perception
Pitch perception is the ability of the human ear to distinguish between
sounds of different frequencies, or pitches. Pitch is typically measured in
hertz (Hz), which represents the number of cycles per second of a sound
wave.
The human ear is capable of detecting sounds ranging from 20 Hz to
20,000 Hz, with the ability to perceive higher frequencies declining with
age. Pitch perception is primarily mediated by the cochlea, a spiral-
shaped structure in the inner ear that contains sensory cells called hair
cells. Different hair cells are sensitive to different frequencies of sound,
with those at the base of the cochlea responding to high frequencies and
those at the apex responding to low frequencies.
The brain then processes these signals and integrates them with other
auditory cues, such as temporal and spectral information, to create a
perception of pitch. The perception of pitch can be influenced by factors
such as the duration, intensity, and complexity of the sound, as well as
individual differences in hearing sensitivity and cognitive processing.
Pitch perception is important for many aspects of human communication
and music appreciation, as it allows us to distinguish between different
musical notes and to understand the prosody of speech. However, pitch
perception can be affected by hearing loss, neurological disorders, and
other factors that can interfere with the ability of the ear and brain to
process sound.
 Smell
Airborne molecules must reach receptors in the back of the nose in
order to smell.
Sniffing swirls the air up into these receptors.
Messages from these receptors are sent to the brain temporal lobe
and to parts of the limbic system.
That’s why certain smells conjure up memories!
Smell is important because it signals us to dangers in our
environment such as smelling something burning, poisonous gases,
etc.
 Taste
Your tongue is covered with small bumps called the papillae. Each
papillae has 100-200 taste buds ( sensory receptors of taste!)
Basic taste sensations are sweet, salt, sour, bitter,
Smell and taste work together ( colds don’t help!)
Taste adds to our enjoyment of food.
Taste signals travel slowly to the brain ( it may take a few seconds to
realize what the taste is ).
End of lecture