CELL

REPRODUCTI
ON/ DIVISION
 CELL
REPRO D UC TION
• As a cell prepares to divide, the DNA inside
the nucleus becomes organized into
chromosomes
• This is to ensure that both of the new cells get
all of the genetic information from the original
cell
 CHROMOSO ME STRUCTURE

• Chromosomes are rod shaped structures

made of DNA and proteins found in the
nucleus of cells
 CHROMOSO ME
STRUCTURE
• Chromosomes consist
of 2 identical halves
called chromatids
– When a cell divides,
each of the two new
cells will receive
one chromatid
• Two chromatids
are attached at the
centromere
 CHROMOSO ME STRUCTURE

• Between cell divisions, DNA is not so tightly

coiled
• This form is called chromatin
 CHROMOSO ME
N UMBERS
• Animal chromosomes are categorized as
either sex chromosomes or autosomes
– Sex chromosomes determine the sex of an
organism
• In humans, sex chromosomes are X or Y
(females = XX, males = XY)
– All of the other chromosomes are
autosomes
 CHROMOSO ME
N UMBERS
• Every cell of an organism produced by sexual
reproduction has two copies of each
autosome (one from each parent)
• The two copies are called homologous
chromosomes
– Same size and shape and carry genes for the same
traits
 DIPLOID AND HAPLOID
CELLS •
• Diploid – cells that have Haploid – cells that only
2 sets of chromosomes have 1 set of
(46 total in humans) chromosomes (23 total
in humans)
• Only sperm and egg
cells are haploid
CELL DIVISION
 CELL DIVISION IN PROKARYOTES

• Binary fission is the division of a prokaryotic

cell into two offspring cells
 CELL DIVISION IN EUKARYOTES

• Two types of cell division

– Mitosis results in new cells that are identical to
the original cell
– Meiosis occurs during the formation of
gametes
(haploid reproductive cells)
 THE CELL
CYCLE
• A repeating set of
events in the life of a
cell
• Division is one phase of
the cycle
• Time between cell
divisions is called
interphase
 INTERPHASE

1. G1 phase – offspring cells grow to mature size

2. S phase – the cell’s DNA is copied
3. G2 phase – cell Prepares for cell division
• Cells can exit the cycle and enter into the G0 phase
to stop dividing (ex: fully developed brain
cells)
• Cytokinesis is the physical process of cell
division, which divides the cytoplasm of a
parental cell into two daughter cells. It
occurs concurrently with two types of nuclear
division called mitosis and meiosis, which occur
STAGES OF MITOSIS
PROPHASE

• DNA
condenses
into
chromosome
s
• Nuclear
membrane
breaks
down
• C entrosomes
form and
microtubules
grow from them
(called the
mitotic spindle)
METAPHAS
E
• Chromosomes line up in
the middle of the cell
• Spindle fibers attach to
the centromere of each
chromosome
ANAPHASE

• Chromatids are pulled

apart and move to
opposite ends of the
cell
TELOPHASE

• Chromosomes reach
opposite ends of
the cell
• Spindle fibers
disassemble
• Chromosome
s unravel
• Nuclear
membranes reform
 CYTOKINESIS
• Animal cells – • Plant cells – cell plate
cytoplasm divides in forms between new
two cells
 CONTROL OF
CELL DIVISION
• A cell spends most of its
time in interphase
• What tells the cells to exit interphase and
begin dividing?
• There are three main checkpoints that act as
“traffic signals” for the cell to divide or not to
divide
 CONTROL OF
CELL DIVISION
1. Cell growth (G1)
checkpoint – controls
whether the cell will
divide
2. DNA synthesis (G2)
checkpoint – make
sure DNA was copied
properly
3. Mitosis checkpoint –
signals tell the cell
to exit mitosis
 WHEN C O N TROL IS LOST: C ANCER

• If a mutation occurs in one of the genes that

regulates the cell cycle, cell growth and
division could be disrupted
• This disruption could lead to cancer – the
uncontrolled growth of cells
MEIOSIS
 MEIOSIS

• A process of nuclear division that reduces the

number of chromosomes in new cells to half
the number in the original cell
 FORMATION OF HAPLOID CELLS

• Meiosis produces gametes, which are haploid

reproductive cells
• Cells preparing to divide by meiosis undergo
the G1, S, and G2 phases of interphase
– Cells begin meiosis with a duplicate set of
chromosomes, just like mitosis
• Cells undergoing meiosis divide twice,
resulting in 4 haploid (1n) cells
 TWO STAGES OF MEIOSIS

• First cell division = Meiosis I

– Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I
and Cytokinesis I

• Second cell division = Meiosis II

– Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase
II and Cytokinesis II
MEIOSIS
I
MEIOSIS
II
 PROPHASE
I
• DNA coils tightly into chromosomes
• Spindle fibers appear
• Nuclear membrane disassembles
• Synapsis occurs - homologous chromosomes
line up next to each other
– Each pair is called a tetrad
 PROPHASE I

• Crossing-over occurs – portions of chromatids

may break off and attach to adjacent
chromatids
• Genetic recombination results – genetic
material between maternal and paternal
chromosomes is exchanged
PROPHASE
I
 METAPHASE
I
• Tetrads line up along
the middle of the
cell
• Spindle fibers attach to
the centromere of each
homologous
chromosome
 ANAPHASE
I
• Each homologous
chromosome moves to
an opposite end of
the cell
• Random separation of
homologous
chromosomes is called
independent
assortment and results
in genetic variation
 TELO PHASE I A N D CYTOKINESIS
I
• Chromosomes reach
opposite ends of
the cell and
cytokinesis begins
• Two new cells are
produced, each
containing one
chromosome from each
homologous pair
(haploid – 1n)
 PROPHASE
II
• Spindle fibers form and
begin to move the
chromosomes toward
the midline of the
dividing cell
 METAPHASE
II
• Chromosomes move to
the midline of the
dividing cell
 ANAPHASE
II
• Chromatids
separate and move
toward opposite
ends of the cell
 TELO PHASE II A N D CYTOKINESIS
II
• Telophase II – nuclear
membrane forms
around the
chromosomes in each
of the four new cells
• Cytokinesis II – 4 new
cells are formed, each
with half of the original
cell’s number of
chromosomes
 DEVELOPMENT OF
GAMETES
• In animals, the only
cells that divide by
meiosis are those that
produce gametes within
the reproductive
organs
– In humans – testes
(males) and ovaries
(females)
 DEVELOPMENT OF
GAMETES
SPERMATOGENESIS
• In the testes – male
gametes known as
sperm cells or
spermatozoa are
produced
• One diploid cell divides
meiotically to form
four haploid cells
called spermatids –
each develops into a
mature sperm cells
 DEVELOPMENT OF
GAMETES
OOGENESIS
• Production of mature egg
cells, or ova
• A diploid reproductive
cell divides meiotically to
produce one mature egg
cell (ovum) and three
polar bodies which will
degenerate – cytoplasm is
not evenly distributed in
cytokinesis
I N T RO D U C T I
O N

2
UNSTRUCTURED METHOD

4
6
8
 Homeostasis – Maintaining
Limits
•Homeostasis ensures that the body’s internal
environment remains constant despite changes
inside and outside the body
•Homeostasis is a dynamic state of
equilibrium
•Homeostasis is necessary for normal body
function and life
•Homeostatic imbalance = disease
Parts of a Feedback System
Negative Feedback System