1

Nature of matter

 Atoms are the smallest particles of matter whose properties we

study in chemistry.
 Atoms were made up of three fundamental sub-atomic particles.
(See table below)
 Atom's is a Greek phrase which means ‘not cut’ or ‘that which is
indivisible’
 Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed during chemical
reactions.
Three
fundamental
sub-atomic
particles

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 Nature of matter
 All atoms are the same size and can be
thought to consist of two main parts. The outer part is composed of
one or more orbits of electrons.
 The other part, located at the center, is extremely small compared to
the atom as a whole, yet essentially all of the real substance of the
atom can be attributed to this small speck.
 We call this speck the nucleus.
 the nucleus is actually composed of two kinds of particles of a roughly
equal size and substance packed closely together.
 These nucleus particles are the proton and neutron
 When we refer to the amount of material or substance in an
object, we are really talking about the number of protons and
neutrons in that object
 Also the mass of an object is related directly to the number of
protons and neutrons contained it .
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 Nature of matter

 The simplest atom is hydrogen which has a single proton for a

nucleus .
 An atom of lead, on the other hand, has 82 protons and 125
neutrons in its nucleus .
 The size of an atom bears no simple relation to the number of
particles in its nucleus
 In general, we can say that the size of an atom is determined
by its electron orbits, its substance is determined by the total
number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.

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 Dalton’s atomic theory
 Around 1805, John Dalton proposed a theory to explain the nature
of matter that is remarkably similar to modern atomic theory. While this
theory is stated in a variety of ways,.
 The key points of this theory are:
1. All matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of an element are identical, while atoms of different
elements are different.
3. Molecules are a combination of any two or more atoms.
4. Compounds are a combination of atoms from two or more different
elements.
5. Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms.The
atoms themselves do not change.

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 Structure of atoms
 The modern model of the atom teaches us that all atoms are made up of
sub-atomic particles. Sub-atomic means ‘smaller than the atom’.
 Protons
 The protons are deep inside the atom, in a zone called the nucleus. The
protons are said to be positively charged.
 Scientists use the word ‘charge’ to represent the property these particles
have. like charges repel .opposite charges attract .
 Neutrons
 Neutrons are particles that are neither positively nor negatively charged
 They are neutral. The neutrons together with protons form the tightly
packed nucleus at the centre of the atom
 Electrons
 Electrons are the smallest of the three sub-atomic particles. Nearly 2,000
times smaller than protons and neutrons.
 The electrons move in a zone around the atomic
nucleus at extremely high speeds
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 Periodic table of the elements
 The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical
elements, ordered by their atomic number (number of protons),
electron configurations, and recurring chemical properties.
 The rows of the table are called periods; the columns are called
groups .
 Each element has a fixed position on the periodic table.
 The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number
 for example:
group 17 elements are the halogens; and
group 18, the noble gases

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 Periodic table of the elements

 For example:
group 17 elements are the halogens; and
group 18, the noble gases

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 Elements, mixtures, compounds and molecules
 There are only two classes of pure substances, namely elements
and compounds
 Elements
 Pure substances, made up of atoms with the same number of
protons
 An element is a material that is made up of atoms of only one
kind
 cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by either
physical or chemical means.
Atoms of different elements have different masses , and its
identified by the number of protons in its nucleus – the number of
neutrons may change (isotopes) and/or the number of electrons
may change (ions) but the element will retain its identity.

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 Elements, mixtures, compounds and molecules

 Mixtures have the properties of the different substances that make it

up.
 Mixtures melt at a range of temperatures and are easy to separate
(salt).
 consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds which
are not chemically bonded, they are physically intermingled.
can be separated into its components by physical means, often retains
many of the properties of its components.
 Compounds
 A compound is a material that is made up of two or more kinds
of atoms that are chemically bonded together
 Chemical synthesis is the name given to the purposeful
execution of chemical reactions to obtain a compound.
 Compounds can only be broken down chemically

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 Elements, mixtures, compounds and molecules

 The splitting of a compound into its constituent elements is called chemical analysis, decomposition or
breakdown

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 Elements, mixtures, compounds and molecules

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 Molecules

 A molecule is two or more atoms that have chemically bonded with each
other.
 The atoms in a molecule can be of the same kind (in which case it would
be a molecule of an element), or they can be of different kinds (in which
case it would be a molecule of a compound).
 ‘Diatomic’ refers to a molecule made of two of the same atoms bonded
together, as in oxygen (O2). ‘Di’ means two.
 ‘Triatomic’ refers to a molecule made up of three of the same atoms
bonded together, like ozone (O3).

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 Chemical formulae

 Each element has its own unique chemical symbol. We can

combine these symbols into a chemical formula, for example, for
water. The chemical formula is another very important concept in
chemistry.
 The chemical formula for water is H2O. It shows the ratio of
hydrogen atoms (two) to oxygen atoms (one) in one molecule of
water.
 A compound is a material that consists of atoms of two or more
different elements. The elements are not just physically mixed,
but chemically bonded together at the atomic level.
 Water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and salt or sodium chloride
(NaCl) are examples of compounds, while oxygen gas (O2),
hydrogen gas (H2) and nitrogen gas (N2) are examples of elements.

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 Chemical formulae
 Example : H2O2 The formula tells us that one molecule of this substance
is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and two atoms of oxygen. Is H2O2
the same as water?
 Do not confuse H2O2 with H2O. H2O2 is a compound called hydrogen
peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is similar to water in that it is a clear,
colorless liquid at room temperature (25°C). Though not as runny, but it
is different in many ways:
1. Has a boiling point of 150°C and it is a very effective bleach for
clothes and hair.
2. Concentrated hydrogen peroxide is so reactive that it is used as a
component in rocket fuel!
3. Hydrogen peroxide is extremely corrosive.
4. very hazardous and harmful, but you can drink water.

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 Chemical reactions
 A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one
set of chemical substances to another.
 Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the
positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds
between atoms, with no change to the nuclei (no change to the
elements present), and can often be described by a chemical equation.
 Sometimes, an additional chemical is added to increase the rate of
reaction is called a catalyst. With a catalyst, reactions occur faster and
require less activation energy.
 Because catalysts are not consumed in the catalysed reaction, they can
continue to catalyse the reaction of further quantities of reactant. Often
only tiny amounts are required.
 Inhibitors are sometimes referred to as “negative catalysts” since they
decrease the reaction rate.

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 Atomic number and mass number
 Atomic number
 Also known as the proton number) is the number of protons found in the
nucleus of an atom. It is traditionally represented by the symbol Z.
 The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. In an atom of
neutral charge, atomic number is equal to the number of electrons.
 Mass number

 also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the number of protons

and neutrons in an atomic nucleus (also defined as a less commonly known

term, nucleons).

 The mass number is unique for each isotope of an element and is written either

after the element name or as a superscript to the left of an element’s symbol.

 Example :

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 Atomic mass unit (AMU)

 In physics, ‘mass’ referred to as the amount of substance or matter. A

natural unit for mass is the mass of a proton or neutron.

 This unit has the name atomic mass unit (AMU or amu). This unit is useful

in those sciences which deal with atomic and nuclear matter.

 An atomic mass unit is defined as precisely 1⁄12 the mass of an atom of

carbon-12, That has six protons and six neutrons in its nucleus.
 1kilogram equals 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 AMU

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 Isotopes

 Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of

neutrons. This gives each isotope of the element a different mass but
being the same element they have the same atomic or proton number.
Most Common
 Example : hydrogen Isotopes
 Helium-3 from sun ; Helium – 4 from sun , Alpha particle
Stable -salt
 Soduim
Only traces
Radioactive gamma
emitter - medicine
Unstable /atomic fusion
 Carbon

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 Isotopes

 Carbon has three isotopes

 Different isotopes are chemically identical. But some isotopes have the
ability to circumvent this rule by transforming into another element
entirely.

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 Electron arrangements
 Shell (Energy Level)
 The electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus
and with increasing distance from the nucleus.
 The shells are lettered from the innermost shell outwards from K to Q.
 There are rules about the maximum number of electrons allowed in
each shell.
 The 1st shell (K) has a maximum of 2 electrons
 The 2nd shell (L) has a maximum of 8 electrons
 The 3rd shell (M) has a maximum of 18 electrons
 The 4th shell (N) has a maximum of 32 electrons
 The orbits are counted outwards from the nucleus.

 If the orbit number is “n”, then the maximum electrons held in the orbit is given
as 2. This is known as Pauli’s exclusion principle.
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 Electron arrangements

 Electrons within an atom have definite energies.

 The electrons closest to the nucleus (n=1) are most tightly bound; the
reason is because of stronger electrostatic attraction with the
nucleus.Electrons in the highest orbit are least tightly bound.
 Electrons in the same orbit have same energies.
 The electron orbits are also called as electron energy levels or shells.
 Electronic shells are known as K shell, L shell, M shell, N shell
corresponding to orbit number n=1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.

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 Electron arrangements
 Subshells
 Shells also levels have subshells. The subshells define the
energy.“s, p, d, f‟ are the names given to the subshells that
hold the electrons in the shells of atoms.
 These orbitals have different shapes and energies (e.g. 1s is
lower energy than 2s which is lower energy than 3s; 2s is
lower energy than 2p).
 Physicists and chemists use a standard notation to indicate
electron configuration of atoms. With a superscript of
numbers of electrons in that subshell
 Example :Lithium has two electrons in the 1s-subshell and
one in the (higher-energy) 2s- subshell, so its configuration is
written 1 2.
 Example : Neon (atomic number 10) is written as : 1s2 2s2 2p6
 Example : Phosphorus (atomic number 15) is written as :
 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 Pronounced as one-s-two ,two-s-two,
two-p-six, three-s-two, three-p-three.
 So Phosphorous can be written as : [Ne] 3s2 3s3
 This convention is useful as it is the electrons in the
outermost shell that most determine the chemistry of the
element.
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 Ionization
 When the atom loses electrons or gains electrons in this process of
electron exchange, it is said to be ionised.
 For ionisation to take place, there must be a transfer of energy
which results in a change in the internal energy of the atom.
 An atom having more than its normal amount of electrons
acquires a negative charge and is called a negative ion (or
“anion”).
 The atom that gives up some of its normal electrons is left with
less negative charges than positive charges and is called a positive
ion (or “cation”).

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 Ionisation
Examples of electron arrangements
Period #1 Period #3

Period #4

Period #2

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 Valency
 Hydrogen is the simplest element.
It has one electron. Its outer shell
only holds two electrons.
 Valency can be simply defined as
the number of hydrogen atoms that
an element can combine with.
 Any element with four electrons in
its outer shell is known as a
semiconductor
 The following names are given to
ions of the specific number of
electron bindings (valence):
1 electron binding – monovalent
2 electron binding – divalent
3 electron binding – trivalent
4 electron binding – tetravalent
5 electron binding – pentavalent
6 electron binding – hexavalent
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 Valency
 The normal valency of an atom is equal to the number of outer electrons if that
number is four or less. Otherwise, the valency is equal to eight minus the number
of outer electrons.
 The atoms with full electron shells (helium, neon, argon) are chemically inert
forming few compounds, don't even interact with each other very much , and are
gases with very low boiling points.
 The atoms with a single outer electron or a single missing electron are all highly
reactive.
 Generally speaking, the closer an atom is to having a full electron shell, the more
reactive it is. Atoms with one outer electron are more reactive than those with two
outer electrons, etc.
 Atoms with only a few electrons in its outer shell are good electrical conductors.
 Atoms with eight, or close to eight electrons in their outer shells are poor
conductors (or good insulators).
 This is why atoms with four electrons in its outer shell are semiconductors.
 When a semiconductor (such as silicon or germanium) atom bonds with another
similar atom, it does so covalently, each atom shares one electron with four
neighbour atoms.

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Conductors, semiconductors and non-conductors (insulators)
 Conductors
 In a conductor, electric current can flow freely, in an insulator
it cannot.
 Metals such as copper typify conductors, while most non-
metallic solids are said to be good insulators, having extremely
high resistance to the flow of electrical charge through them.
 “Conductor” implies that the outer electrons of the atoms are
loosely.
 In copper, the valence electrons are essentially free and
strongly repel each other.
 Most metals are good electrical conductors , and generally Ceramic
good heat conductors , most non-metals are not. insulators are
 Insulators commonly
 Most solid materials are classified as insulators because they used in
offer very large resistance to the flow of electric current. electrical
pylons
 Some materials are particularly good insulators and can be
characterised by their high resistivity's.
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Conductors, semiconductors and non-conductors (insulators)
 Semiconductors
 Solid materials are classified by the way the atoms are arranged within the solid.
 Materials in which atoms are placed at random are called amorphous.
 Materials in which atoms are placed in a highly ordered structure are called
crystalline.
 Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids with distinct electrical
characteristics.
 They are of high resistance – higher than typical resistance materials, but still of
much lower resistance than insulators.
 Their resistance decreases as their temperature increases, which is behaviour
opposite to that of a metal.
 Pure semiconductors have only a small number of free electrons available and pass
a limited amount of electrical current.
 Semiconductors are extremely important in modern electronics because they can be
used to control the amount of current in an electrical system.
 Their conducting properties may be altered in useful ways by the deliberate,
controlled introduction of impurities (called “doping”) into the crystal structure,
which lowers its resistance but also permits the creation of semiconductor junctions
between differently-dopedIssue
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regions
01
of the extrinsic semiconductor crystal.
Revision 01 31
 semiconductors
 Although some pure elements and many compounds display
semiconductor properties, silicon, germanium are the most widely used
in electronic devices. All these four electrons in their outer shell elements
have (tetravalent).

Each atom in a silicon lattice has its valence Semiconductor crystal materials and
electrons tightly bound within the lattice structure. light emitting diodes (LEDs), in
Doping with impurities can create specific amounts which semiconductor materials are
of holes and free electrons, thus controlling the used in their construction and
conductivity operation
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 Chemical bonding
 The photo shows different arrangements of metal balls. These balls
are magnetic and this allows you to make different patterns by
sticking them together.
 Magnets attract (or repel) each other because of a magnetic force
between them.
 When atoms combine, they do so because they also experience an
attractive force.
 The force is slightly more complex than the force between magnets,
but it works in the same way: The force holds atoms together as if
they are stuck together with glue.
 The forces that hold atoms together are called chemical bonds.
 The water molecule, chemical bonds between O and the two H
atoms hold the whole molecule together. It has two identical O-H
bonds.
 When atoms separate from each other and recombine into different
combinations of atoms, we say a chemical reaction has occurred
 In the above chemical reaction, the water has “decomposed”(broke
up) and “recombined” into smaller molecules.
 Of course, not all chemical reactions are decomposition reactions.
There are many different kinds of chemical reactions.
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 Adhesion and cohesion

 “Cohesion” is the intermolecular force between liquid particle

types (for example, it is what makes water molecules stick
together, or “cohere”, to make a rain drop).
 “Adhesion” is the intermolecular force between dissimilar atoms
(for example, it is what makes the rain drops “adhere” to a
washing line).
 These types of bonding are temporary.
 Atomic bonding refers to the permanent bonding between atoms
which holds all materials together.

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 Noble gases

 Some atoms are very reluctant to combine with other atoms and
exist in the air around us as single atoms.
 These are the noble gases and have very stable electron
arrangements e.g. 2, 2.8 and 2.8.8 and are shown in the figures
below.

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 Covalent bonding

 Covalent bonding is a form of chemical bonding where electrons

are shared to form molecules.
 This type of bond is usually formed between two non-metallic
elements in a molecule.
 The molecules might be that of an element i.e. one type of atom
only or from different elements chemically combined to form a
compound.
 The covalent bonding is caused by the mutual electrical attraction
between the two positive nuclei of the two atoms of the bond, and
the electrons between them.
 One single covalent bond is a sharing of one pair of electrons, two
pairs of shared electrons between the same two atoms gives a
double bond and it is possible for two atoms to share three pairs of
electrons and give a triple bond.

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 The simplest molecules are formed from two atoms and examples of
Small
their covalent
formation aremolecules
shown below.(molecular covalent bonding)
 The electrons are shown as dots and crosses to indicate which atom the
electrons come from, though all electrons are the same.
 The diagrams may only show the outer electron arrangements for atoms
that use two or more electron shells.
 Examples of small covalent molecules are:
1. Two hydrogen atoms form the molecule of the element hydrogen H2 ,
i.e + = , where both atoms have a pseudo helium
structure of two outer electrons around each atom.
2. Two chlorine atoms (2.8.7) form the molecule of the element
chlorine Cl2 , i.e + = , where both atoms have a
pseudo-neon or argon structure of eight outer electrons around each
atom.
3. hydrogen chloride
4. Water
5. Ammonia NH3
6. Methane CH4
7. Oxygen element O2
8. Carbon dioxide CO2
9. Ethane C2H2
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Small covalent molecules (molecular covalent bonding)
 The electrical forces of attraction between atoms in a molecule are
strong and most molecules do not change on heating.
 However, the forces between molecules are weak and easily
weakened further on heating.
 Small covalent molecules have low melting and boiling points.
 They are also poor conductors of electricity because there are no
free electrons or ions in any state to carry an electric charge.
 Most small molecules will dissolve in a solvent to form a solution.

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 Large covalent molecules (giant covalent bonding)

 It is possible for many atoms to link up to form a giant covalent structure.

 This produces a very strong three-dimensional covalent bond network.
 Carbon can form four single bonds to four other atoms. This type of
structure is thermally very stable and they have high melting and boiling
points.
 They are usually poor conductors of electricity because the electrons are
not usually free to move as they can in metallic structures.
 Also because of the strength of the bonding in the structure, they are
often very hard and will not dissolve in solvents like water.

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 Allotropes
 Allotropy or allotropism meaning “other”, and tropos, meaning
“manner” or “form”) is the property of some chemical elements to
exist in two or more different forms, in the same physical state,
known as allotropes of these elements.
 Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element; the
atoms of the element are bonded together in a different manner.
 For example, the allotropes of carbon include diamond (where the
carbon atoms are bonded together in a tetrahedral lattice
arrangement), graphite (where the carbon atoms are bonded
together in sheets of a hexagonal lattice).

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 Both graphite (above) and diamond (below) are
forms of carbon. The difference is the method of
bonding and their crystal structure. They are just two
examples of allotropes of carbon.

A plane of carbon atoms from a diamond

crystal

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 Ionic bonding
 Ionic bonding is a type of bonding where one atom transfers
electrons to another atom. The atom losing electrons forms a
positive ion and is usually a metal. The atom gaining electrons
forms a negative ion and is usually a non-metallic element.
 The examples below combining a metal from groups one (alkali
metals), two or three, with a non-metal from group six or group
seven (the halogens).


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 Ionic bonding Example

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 Ionic bonding Example

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 The properties of ionic compounds
 The ions in an ionic solid are arranged in an orderly way in a giant
ionic lattice shown in the diagram below.
 The ionic bond is the strong electrical attraction between the
positive and negative ions next to each other in the lattice.
 Salts and metal oxides are typical ionic compounds
 This strong bonding force makes the structure hard and have high
melting and boiling points.
 Many ionic compounds are soluble in water, but not all.
 The solid crystals do not conduct electricity because the ions are
not free to move to carry an electric current.
 However, if the ionic compound is melted or dissolved in water, the
liquid will now conduct electricity, as the ion particles are now
free.

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 Metallic bonding (electron cloud)
 The crystal lattice of metals consists of ions, not atoms. The
outer electrons (–) from the original metal atoms are free to
move around between the positive metal ions formed (+).
 These free or ‘de-localised’ electrons are the ‘electronic
glue’ holding the particles together. There is a strong
electrical force of attraction between these mobile electrons
and the ‘immobile’ positive metal ions – this is the metallic
bond.
 This strong bonding generally results in dense, strong ‘Electron cloud’
formation of
materials with high melting and boiling points.
ionic (or
 due to the free moving electrons metals are good
metallic) bonding
conductors of electricity because these ‘free’ electrons
carry the charge of an electric current when a potential
difference (voltage) is applied across a piece of metal , and
also good conductors of heat.
 Non-metallic solids conduct heat energy by hotter more
strongly vibrating atoms, knocking against cooler less
strongly vibrating atoms to pass the particle kinetic energy
on.
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 States; solid, liquid and gaseous

 Solids
 A solid object is characterised by its resistance to deformation and changes of
volume.
 A solid has these properties:
 The atoms or molecules that comprise the solid are packed closely
together.
 These constituent elements have fixed positions in space relative to
each other.
 If sufficient force is applied, its lattice atomic structure can be
disrupted, causing permanent deformation.
 Liquids
 A liquid's shape is confined to, but not determined by, the container it fills.
 Liquid particles are free to move within the volume, but they form a discrete
surface that may not necessarily be the same as the vessel.
 It must conform to the shape of the container entirely.

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 States; solid, liquid and gaseous
 Gases
 Gases consist of freely moving atoms or molecules without a definite shape and
without a definite volume.
 Compared to the solid and liquid states of matter a gas has lower density and a
lower viscosity.
 The volume of a gas will change with changes in temperature or pressure, as
described by the ideal gas law.
 A gas also has the characteristic that it will diffuse readily, spreading apart in
order to uniformly fill the space of any container.
 Plasma
 A plasma is typically an ionised gas. Plasma is considered to be a distinct state of
matter, apart from gases, because of its unique properties.
 ‘Ionized’ refers to the presence of one or more free electrons, which are not
bound to an atom or molecule.
 The free electric charges make the plasma electrically conductive so that it
responds strongly to electromagnetic fields.
 Plasma typically takes the form of neutral gas-like clouds or charged ion beams,
but may also include dust and grains (called dusty plasmas).
 They are typically formed by heating and ionising a gas, stripping electrons away
from atoms.
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 Changes between states
 Solids can melt and become liquids, and liquids can boil to become gases.
 Likewise, gases can condense to become liquids, and liquids can freeze to
become solids.
 Sometimes solids can become gases without ever becoming liquids. This
is called sublimation.
 When a gas becomes a solid without going through the liquid phase, it is
called deposition.

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 Brownian motion
 Particles in both liquids and gases (collectively called ‘fluids’) move
randomly. This is called Brownian motion. They do this because they are
bombarded by the other moving particles in the fluid.
 Larger particles can be moved by light, fast-moving molecules.
 Brownian motion is named after the botanist Robert Brown, who first
observed this in 1827. He used a microscope to look at pollen grains
moving randomly in water.

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 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases
 All three states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) expand when heated. The
atoms themselves do not expand, but the volume they take up does.
 When a solid is heated, its atoms vibrate faster about their fixed points.
The relative increase in the size of solids, when heated, is, therefore,
small.
 Liquids expand for the same reason, but because the bonds between
separate molecules are usually less tight they expand more than solids.
 This is the principle behind liquid-in-glass thermometers.
 An increase in temperature results in the expansion of the liquid which
means it rises up the glass.

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 Kinetic particle theory
 The kinetic particle theory explains the properties of the different states
of matter.
 The particles in solids, liquids and gases have different amounts of
energy.
 They are arranged differently and move in different ways.

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Brownian motion – a particle (such as dust particle) moves Buckled railway lines caused by thermal expansion during
randomly, because of collisions with air molecules excessive summer temperatures

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 Acids and alkalis
 Acids  Alkalis
 Properties of acids:
 They are liquids.
 Properties of alkalis:
 They are solutions of compounds in  They feel soapy to touch.
water.  They are soluble bases.
 If concentrated they can be  Like acids, they can burn the
corrosive. skin.
 Acids taste sour (for example,  They turn red litmus blue - this
vinegar). is how you test for an alkali!
 Turn blue litmus paper red - this is
 Alkalis contain hydroxide ions
an easy test for an acid!
 Usually, react with metals to form (OH-).
salts.  They taste bitter.
 Acids contain hydrogen ions.  Turns Universal Indicator from
 Turn Universal Indicator from green green to blue or purple.
to red, and have a pH less than 7.  Some common alkalis used in and
 Examples of acids: are vinegar (ethanoic
acid) and lemon juice (citric acid)
around aircraft:
 Some common acids used in and around  Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
aircraft:  Ammonia, NH3
 Hydrochloric acid, HCl
 Nitric acid, HNO3
 Ammonia hydroxide NH4OH
 Sulphuric acid, H2SO4  Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
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 Acids and alkalis use in Aircraft

A lead acid battery contains sulphuric acid A nickel cadmium (Ni-Cad)

battery contains potassium
hydroxide (an alkali)

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 The pH (Potential Hydrogen) scale
 Acids and alkalis can be strong or weak.
 The strength of an acid or alkali is shown using a scale of
numbers called the pH scale. The numbers go from 0-14.
 On the scale:
 An acidic solution has a pH number less than 7
 An alkaline solution has a pH number greater
than 7
 A neutral solution has a pH number of exactly 7.
 You can find the pH of any solution using universal
indicator.
 Universal indicator is a mixture of dyes. It comes as a
solution or in paper.
 Universal indicator will change from green to a different
colour depending on the pH of the solution you place it
in.

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 ANY QUESTIONS?
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 THE END

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