KOTEBE UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTEMENT OF BIOLOGY

CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL

RESOURCES
BY: Dr. Tewodros K

1
 COURSE GUIDEBOOK

Department Biology
Module Title Ecology and Environmental Biology
Module Code Biol-
Course Title Conservation and management of natural resources
Course code Biol
Credit hours 2
Course EtCTS 3
Mode of delivery Block II
Target group 4 th year biology students
Course status Compulsory
Class schedule
venue
Semester II
Lecture Room
course Prerequisite None
Instructors information Dr. Tewodros K
Consultation hours
Phone number
E-mail

2
• Course description
This course is designed to provide an introduction to the area of
conservation biology. It will include an examination of the
historical and ethical background underpinning the current
conservation movement; the types of natural resources. The
course will focus on the values of biodiversity and ecosystem
services, and threats on biodiversity due to human impacts.
Furthermore, ecological concepts that are utilized in
conservation management practices and conservation status in
Ethiopia will be examined. The role of international
conventions, national policy and institutions in implementing
conservations and the future directions of conservation
biology will also be discussed.
• Course Objectives
• By the end of this course, students will be able to:
• describe the basic concepts of conservation biology.
3
• discuss the history of conservation biology.
• enumerate the types of natural resources.
• discuss global biodiversity and its importance.
• identify the threats to biodiversity and natural resources and seek solutions to
the problem.
• describe methods for the conservation and management of natural resources.
• discuss the role of governments and other institutions in conservation endeavors.
• Student Workload
• Students’ activity
Hour
• Lecture 32
• Filed work 20
• Independent reading 29
• Total 81
•
• Teaching Learning Methods/Strategies: Lecture, field work, individual or group
project, independent reading, assignments. Chalkboard, chalk, marker, duster,
laptop, flash disk, CD, LCD projector, pens, pencils facilities for field activities.

4
 WEEK TOPIC References
Week 1  Introduction Meffe and Carroll
- Concepts and definition (1997)
- The need to conserve natural resources
 Types of natural resources
- Renewable
- Non-renewable
Quiz I= 5%
Week 2  Biodiversity Meffe and Carroll
- Definition (1997)
- Scope of biodiversity Meffe and Carroll
- Threats of biodiversity/ Biodiversity at risk (1997)
- Human impact on biodiversity
- Maintaining biodiversity
- Patters and processes (predicting biodiversity patterns and species distribution modeling)
- Values and services of ecosystem
 Threat to biodiversity
- Habitat degradation and loss
- Habitat fragmentation
- Overexploitation
Test I = 10%
Week 3 - Species extinction Meffe and Carroll
- Invasive species. (1997)
Assessment 1
 Conservation biology
- Definition and history of conservation biology
- Conservation ethics and rationale
 Conservation planning in theory and practice.
- conservation priority setting
Quiz II = 5%
Week 4 - conservation approaches Meffe and Carroll
 In-situ conservation (1997)
 Ex-situ conservation
- Habitat restoration
 Restoration of degraded ecosystem
 Combating desertification
 Saline habitat reclamation
- Future direction in conservation biology
Assignment 2

Week 5 Test II = 10%

Filed trip

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Week 6  The status of conservation in Ethiopia Meffe and Carroll
- Soil and water conservation exercise as restoration ecology will be practiced. (1997)
- Wildlife conservation
- Forest conservation

Week 7  The role of governments and other institution in conservation Meffe and Carroll
- International conventions (1997)
- National laws and policies

Week 8 Final Exam = 50%

Mode of Assessment criteria:

Quizzes & Tests …………………………………………………. .30 %
Assignements and présentation………………..…….…….……… 25%
Final exam ………………………….……..……………….….….. 50%
Total ………………………………………………………..……...100%
 UNIT ONE: CONSERVATION

Is the increased ration

of natural disasters a
sign of Apocalypse?
►Learning Objectives
 After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning and definition of conservation.
Mentions the main goals of conservation.
Describe the need to conserve resource.

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 1.1 Definition and Concepts of Conservation

What is conservation?
 Conservation is the science of protection,
preservation and management of the components of
ecosystem(i.e all floras, faunas and abiotic resources
at different levels.
Wise and controlled use of the earth’s resources.
The principles and practices of science of
preserving species extinction.
 It is a rational use of the natural resources.
 It is a sustainable use of natural resources such
as plants, animals, soil, clean water, clean air, and
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 The Need to Conserve Natural Resources
 Why is conservation needed??
 The main reasons for conserving biodiversity are:
 To ensure the survival of species and habitats
which are threatened due to human activities.
 To secure the valuable natural resources for future
generations.
 To maintain the well-being of ecosystem function.
 The following assumptions are agreed by
conservation biologists to explain the purposes of
resource conservation.
 The diversity of organism is good.
 The untimely extinction of species is bad. 9
 Cont…
Ecological complexity is good.
 Furthermore, natural resources have to be
conserved because of the following reasons:
Natural resources have to be conserved in order
to live in harmony.
They are useful for the health of humans and
animals (vitamins, minerals, medicinal plants,
fungi, etc. are sourced from natural resources).
They are useful for the health of soil (fertility
maintenance, erosion prevention, etc.).
10
 Cont…
They are useful for regulation of the
hydrological cycles.
They have a big economic (and monetary) value.
They have also played a major roles in shaping
the diversity of nature at genetic, species and
ecosystem levels.
……………………..//……………………

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UNIT TWO: TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES

►Learning Objectives
 After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain the definition of resource.
 Identify different types of natural resources.
 Explain criteria used to classify natural resources.
 Describe different use of natural resources. 13
 2.1 Definition and Concepts of Resources

 Resource is defined as a source or supply from

which benefit is produced.
 Typically resources are materials or other assets
that are transformed to produce benefit and in the
process may be consumed or made unavailable.
 In Biology and Ecology, a resource is defined
as a substance or object required by a living
organism for normal growth, maintenance, and
reproduction.

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 2.2 Category of Natural Resources

 Natural resources are derived from the

environment.
 Many of them are essential for human survival,
while others are used for satisfying human desire.
 Thus, these naturally occurring resources in the
environment are not disturbed by mankind.

15
 Cont…
 Natural resources have been variously categorized as:
i. Biotic versus abiotic resources
ii. Potential versus actual resources
iii. Renewable versus non-renewable resources
i) Biotic and abiotic resources
 On the basis of origin natural resources may be
classified into biotic and abiotic resources.
 Biotic resources are living recourses that obtained
from the biosphere. Example, Plants, animals, birds,
fish and other marine organisms.
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 Cont…
 Abiotic resources comprise non living things such
as land, water, air and minerals such as gold, iron,
copper, silver, etc.
ii) Actual and Potential Resources
 On the basis of stage of development natural
resources may be classified into actual and potential
resources.
 Actual resources are those resources that have been
surveyed, their quantity and quality determined, and
are being used in present times.
 Potential Resources are known to exist and may be
used in the future. 17
 Cont…
iii) Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources
 On the basis of renewability resources can be classified
into renewable & non renewable resources.
 Renewable resources: resources that can be produced
or replaced within a short period of time.
 Resources such as animals, reptiles, plants, water,
grass, solar, air, wind are examples of renewable
resources.
 Some renewable resources such as sun light, air and
wind energy are also called as perpetual resources
because they are available continuously through at a
limited rate. 18
 Cont…
 Their quantity is not affected by human
consumption.
 Many of them can be depleted by human use, but
may also be replenished, thus maintaining a flow.
 Non-renewable Resources: resources that can not be
produced or replaced within a short period of time.
 Minerals and fossils are included in this
category since their rate of formation is
extremely slow, they cannot be replenished
once they are depleted.
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 2.3 Uses of Natural Resources

 Natural resources have many uses and values such

as economical, ecological and cultural values.
 Thus, it is our moral duty to protect and conserve
them for the future generations.
Water
 Water is used for:
 drinking
 irrigation
 transportation
 Fishing (source of food )
 generating hydro-electric power 20
 Cont…
Vegetation
• Vegetation is used for:
 food
 making furniture
 fire wood (fuel or energy source)
Clothing (e.g. Cotton)
 Medicines
Construction
Soil and water conservation
21
 Cont…
Animals
• Animals are used as:
 food (flesh, milk and egg)
fertilizers ( Manure or compost)
fur and hides
 transportation
Ploughing
Medicine

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 Cont…
Soil
• Soil is used for:
growing plants
Shelter
Minerals
• Minerals are used as:
 energy ( fuel)
Nutrient for plants and animals
………………………………………..
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 Assignment

1. Use of renewable natural resources is friendlier

to environment compared to non-
renewable resources. Discuss
2. Differentiate the natural resources from the
reserves.
3. Renewability of a resource is sometimes
blurred. Discuss
4. Why is it so necessary to ensure resource
management in course of resource use?
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UNIT THREE: BIODIVERSITY (BD)

►Learning Objectives
 After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the definition of biodiversity.
Identify different levels of biodiversity.
Justify the distribution pattern of biodiversity.
Describe values and services of ecosystem
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3.1 Definition and Concepts of Biodiversity
The term ‘Biodiversity’ is a contraction of
the word ‘Biological diversity’.
Diversity refers to the range of variations
among some set of entities.
Intraspecific/Inter
Biodiversity refers to a variety of life forms.
The term biodiversity is commonly used to
describe the number, variety and variability
of living organisms.
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 Cont…
 As Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD),
biodiversity is defined as the variability among
living organisms from all sources.
 This includes diversity within species, b/n
species, among species and ecosystems.
 Thus, it is the sum total of all the diversity of
living things in a particular area.

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 3.2 Levels of Biodiversity

 Biological diversity is described most conveniently

in terms of three conceptual levels.
1. Ecosystem Diversity
 It refers the variety of habitats, biotic communities
and ecosystems in the biosphere.
 It is the diversity of biological communities within
and among ecosystem.
 It includes:
 Variation of communities in which species live.
 Variation of ecosystems in which communities exist.
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 Ecosystem diversity

Includes diversity
above the species
level

Biologists have viewed diversity above the species

level in various ways. Some alternative ways to
categorize it include:
Community diversity
Habitat diversity
Landscape diversity
Figure 15.2
Biodiversity provides free ecosystem services

• Provides food, shelter, fuel

• Purifies air and water, and detoxifies wastes
• Stabilizes climate, moderates floods, droughts, wind,
temperature
• Generates and renews soil fertility and cycles nutrients
• Pollinates plants and controls pests and disease
• Maintains genetic resources
• Provides cultural and aesthetic benefits
• Allows us to adapt to change

The annual value of just 17 ecosystem services = $16 - 54 trillion per

year
 2. Species diversity
The number or variety of
species in a particular region

Species richness = number of species

Evenness, or relative abundance = extent to which
numbers of different species are equal or skewed

Species = a particular type of organism; a population or

group of populations whose members share certain
characteristics and can freely breed with one another
and produce fertile offspring
Figure 15.2
 Cont…
 Species diversity can be measured or described
by two main important parameters.
 Species richness: is the number of species per area.
 Species relative abundance: is the number of
individual of a species per unit area.

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3. Genetic Diversity

• It is the diversity of genes within species.

• It also refers the frequency and variety of genes
within a species or among a population of the
same species.

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 Components of biodiversity
Biodiversity exists on several levels:

Genetic Species
diversity diversity

Ecosystem
diversity

Figure 15.2
 3.3 Distribution patterns of Biodiversity

 Biodiversity is ubiquitous (found everywhere, on land,

in water and atmosphere), but it is unevenly
distributed in the world.
 Its distribution is higher in some areas and lower in
other areas of the world.
 There are three basic species distributions patterns:
random distribution, uniform or regular distribution,
and clumped (Aggregated) distribution.
 Observations have shown that biodiversity varies
according to habitat differences.
 For instance, tropical rainforest and tropical lowlands
have higher diversities than other habitats. 35
36
 PATTERN OF DISPERSION
mostly it is seen in artificial case e.g. managed
crop plants

UNIFORM CLUMPED RANDOM

Most populations live in clumps due to resource

availability, protection, food capture, mating
and/or caring for young.
 Cont…
 In general, distribution patterns of biodiversity
described in relation to some environmental
factors such as, topography, climate, latitude,
soil fertility and others.
 The following are some of the observed
gradients in biodiversity pasture.
a) Latitudinal gradients
 Biodiversity decreases with increasing latitude
(Equator Polar Regions).
 Tropical communities support more terrestrial,
aquatic and marine species than do temperate or
polar communities. 38
 Cont…
b) Elevation gradients
 Biodiversity decreases with increasing
altitude (Lowland  Highland).
c) Precipitation gradients: - Biodiversity increases
with increasing moisture (rainfall).
d) Nutrient levels: - Biodiversity increases with
increasing soil fertility.
e)Salinity gradients: - Biodiversity decreases with
increasing salinity.

39
 3.4 Values and Services of Ecosystem
 Biodiversity has economic, ecological and cultural
values.
3.4.1 Economic values of ecosystem
 For all humans, biodiversity is the first resource for
daily life.
 Some of the important economic commodities that
biodiversity supplies to humankind are:
Food: many species are important as food for human.
 These include: crops, livestock, fish, wild foods (bush
meat, wild edible plants), etc,.
Medication: Many plant and animal species are used as
traditional medicines. 40
 Cont…
Examples:
Hagenia abyssinica is used to treat tape
worm.
Industry:
different plant species are used as fibers for
clothing, wood for shelter, source of energy,
oils, lubricants, perfumes, dyes, paper, rubber
and poisons.
Supplies from animal origin include wool,
silk, fur, leather, lubricants, and waxes. 41
 Cont…
Tourism and recreation:
 Parks, Sanctuaries and wild life reserves are source
of beauty and joy for many people.
3.4.2 Ecological Services of ecosystem
 All species provide some function to an ecosystem
which includes the following.
Increase soil fertility.
Help to cycle water and nutrient
Control soil erosion.
Serving as plant pollinators
Help to regulate world’s climatic condition. 42
 Benefits of biodiversity
Preserving biodiversity preserves ecosystem services,
and directly provides things of pragmatic value to us.
• Food, fuel, and fiber
• Shelter and building materials
• Air and water purification
• Waste decomposition
• Climate stabilization and moderation
• Nutrient cycling
• Soil fertility
• Pollination
• Pest control
• Genetic resources
 UNIT FOUR: THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

4.1 Definition of Threats to Biodiversity

A threat to biodiversity is any activity,
process or event, whether natural or human
induced, that is causing or likely to cause an
adverse effect on the status of any
components of biodiversity.
It is a negative factor that can affect the
normal condition of ecosystems.

44
4.2 Human Induced Threats to biodiversity
 Are those factors caused by human activities
which may have local impacts on biodiversity.
 If species are adapted to local environment, why
are they facing extinction?
 Massive disturbances caused by people have
altered, degraded and destroyed the landscape on
a vast scale.
 Human activity can also drive species and whole
communities to the point of extinction.
 The following table shows some of Human
induced threats to biodiversity. 45
 Cont…
Table 4.1: Human induced threats to biodiversity

1. Development 2. Exploitation
Construction of Poaching/ illegal hunting
roads and dams Food gathering
Mining/drilling Firewood/minor forest
Resource product collection
extraction Scientific/educational
Pollution Trade(national/international)
Drainage Dam

46
 Cont…
3. Encroachment 4. Inappropriate management of
human resources and political
Settlement issues
Urbanization
Agriculture Inappropriate land use
Forest plantations Negative attitudes
Introduction of Inappropriate management
exotic species resources
Habitat destruction Lack of effective management
Erosion Impact of tourism development
Military activities
Reduction in size of protected area

47
 Cont…
Which part of the world is seriously threatened?
 Developing countries especially tropics are
seriously threatened part of the world.
 The tropics are suffering the greatest destruction
and species loss in the world, especially in humid
forests and coastal ecosystems.
 However, it is the part of the world which is
guardian of the biological resources.

48
 Why is biodiversity loss a concern?
 This is because:
 It provides many key benefits to humans.
 It is a prerequisite for normal ecosystem
function.
 Current losses of biodiversity are restricting
future development options.
 The ecosystems are being transformed or
deplated.
 A large number of species have gone to extinct.
 Species and genetic diversity is widely decline.
49
 Cont…
 What are the consequences of biodiversity loss?
 Biodiversity loss affects both material and non
material human well-being.
 This has negative effects on several aspects:
Food security
Vulnerability (susceptibility) to natural disaster
Energy security
Access to clean water and raw materials.
It also affects human health and social relations.

50
 Cont…
 The major threats to biological diversity that
result from human activities are:
1. Habitat degradation
2.Habitat fragmentation
3.Overexploitation
4.Introduction of invasive exotic species
5.Increased spread of disease
6.Habitat destruction by deforestation

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 Causes of species extinction

Primary causes spell “HIPPO”:

• Habitat alteration
• Invasive species
• Pollution
• Population growth
• Overexploitation
Biodiversity loss has a variety of causes
 “HIPPO”: Habitat alteration
The greatest cause of extinction today

Accounts for 85% of population declines of birds and

mammals

Habitat change hurts most organisms because they are

adapted to an existing habitat.

Alteration due to:

Forest clearing Urban development
Agriculture Global climate change etc….
 1. Habitat Degradation
 Habitat degradation is the conversion of
habitat from suitable to unsuitable and the
lowering of quality of ecosystem.
 All threats are not affect species equally.
 Some threats may not affect the dominant
species in the community, but other species are
greatly affected by such habitat degradation.
 For instance, selected cutting of commercially
important tree species from the forest
ecosystem causes forest degradation.
55
 2. Habitat Fragmentation
 Habitat Fragmentation is the process where by a
large, continuous area of habitat is reduced in area
and divided into two or more fragments.
 It mostly occurs when the original habitat is divided
into fragments due to Roads and railway construction,
agriculture intensification, irrigation, wild fire, dam
construction, etc,(Figure 4.1).
 The fragmented habitats differ from the original
habitat in two important ways:
a) Fragments have edge per area of habitat and
b) The center of each fragmented habitat is closer to an
edge. 56
 Cont…
 Thus the species in a fragmented habitat are vulnerable to
natural and other human made disasters such as;
 new species invasion
 reduced seed dispersion
spread of disease from domestic to wild animals
removal of species by wind and floods.

57
 3. Overexploitation
• Overexploitation is the activity includes hunting,
fishing or harvesting of species to the point of
extinction.
• It reduces population size of the organism and species
become more slow and unable to recover.
• It can affect and even erase some species which are
endangered and endemic to some area.
• People harvested food and other resources they needed
to survive.
• Predators may also decline when their prey are
overharvested by people.
• Thus, sustainable use of biodiversity is mandatory58to
 4. Introduction of invasive exotic species

 Invasive species are those species introduced

outside their normal distribution and invade the
area of native species.
 Examples, Lantana camara, Partinem histrophorus,
Prosopis juliflora
 The introduction of non native species impose an
enormous problem on:
 Agricultural crops
 Forestry
 Fisheries and
 Human food security
59
 Cont…
 Non native species affect native species by:
Competing for resources or preying them
Hybridizing them and
Transferring disease from other area to them.
 Are all non native species harmful?
 No, food plants and animals are useful for food security
and livelihoods.
 Many exotic species introduced accidentally;
During packing materials on ships
 During colonization
With imported agricultural crops
During transport and flooding
60
 “HIPPO”: Invasive species
Accidental or intentional introduction of exotic
species to new areas

Most do not establish or expand, but some do—likely

because they are “released” from limitations imposed
by their native predators, parasites, and competitors.

In today’s globalizing world,

invasive species have become perhaps the second- worst
threat to native biota.
 5. Increased Spread of Disease
• Human activities increase the incidence of disease to
animals.
• Animals are more prone to infection.
• Bacteria, virus and fungi are the agents for animal disease.
• The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides during
agricultural activity cause diseases to wildlife especially
insects, birds and the aquatic fauna.
• In addition, chemical pollutants, such as mercury,
petroleum, Sulfur dioxide, etc are toxic to animals and
plants and may cause disease.
• In the wild, animal populations reduced by disease can
upset the ecological balance of an area.
62
 6. Habitat destruction by deforestation
 Deforestation is a permanent destruction,
clearance or loss of forests for other land uses
such as:
 agriculture
Grazing
New settlements
Infrastructure and dam reservoirs
Compare and contrast Deforestation and forest
degradation!
63
 Why should we be concerned?
Conservation biologists in particular, and environ-
mentalists in general, provide at least 3 types of
arguments:

Ethical reasons
Do we have the right to drive other species to
extinction?
Do we have the right to leave the world in
worse shape for our children and grandchildren
than it was in when we were born?
 Why should we be concerned?
Conservation biologists in particular, and environ-
mentalists in general, provide at least 3 types of
arguments:

Economic reasons
Would we be better off without penicillin and
other pharmaceuticals derived from nature?
Would we be better off without the estimated
$33 trillion (2 x the global gross national
product) in ecosystem services provided by
the whole-earth ecosystem?
Would we be better off without commercial and
sport fisheries?
 Maintenance of Biodiversity
• For maintaining the threatened biodiversity,
the following action should be taken as solution.
Establishing protected areas ( NP)
Targeting interventions of organism at genetic,
species and ecosystem level
Restoration of damaged ecosystems
Recovery of endangered species
Creation of sustainable forms of development
No action (leaving the ecosystem from action).

66
 UNIT FIVE
CONSERVATION BIOLOGY AND PLANNING

5.1 Concepts of Conservation Biology

 Conservation biology is the scientific discipline
that has developed in 1980 in the form of modern
sense to concern the current rates of species
extinction.
 It is a scientific response of scientific
communities to the biological diversity crisis.
 It mainly concerned with phenomena that affect
conservation, maintenance and restoration of
biological diversity.
67
 Cont…
 Why does the modern conservation biology arises?
• Because, none of the traditional applied disciplines
are comprehensive enough to address the critical
threats to biodiversity.
• Unlike traditional conservation, conservation biology
is not rooted on economic and utilitarian philosophy.
• Its main objectives are investigating human impacts
on global diversity and developing practical
approaches to promote human development without
destroying biological diversity.

68
 otects designed to provide villagers
boring national parks in Uganda with
ue from ecotourism, none of the
Conservation biology responds to biodiversity
loss
• Conservation biology =
devoted to understanding
the factors that influence
the loss, protection, and
restoration of biodiversity
– Arose as scientists became
alarmed at the
degradation of natural
systems
– An applied and goal-
oriented science
 Conservation priority setting
• When environments are damaged, the population
sizes of many species will be reduced and some
species will go extinct.
• Ecologists have observed that not all species have
an equal probability of going extinct.
• A particular categories of species are most
vulnerable to extinction.
• Thus ,these categories need the first conservation
priority.

72
 Cont…
 The following are some categories of species which
are the most vulnerable (susceptible) to extinction.
 Species with a very narrow geographical range.
 Species with a few species population.
 Species that have large body size.
 Species with low rates of population increase.
 Species with less effective seed dispersion.
 Species that is hunted or harvested by people.
Q. For which of the following species the first
conservation priority is given? A. Ethiopian wolf
B. Giant mole rat C. Mountain Nyala D. All73
 Cont…
 In 1984 the IUCN has established the following five main
categories for the purpose of conservation.
 These are:
 extinct species that are no longer known to exist in the
world.
 endangered species that have a high probability of going
extinct in the near future
 vulnerable species that may become endangered in the near
future.
 rare species that have small number of individuals or low
population densities and
 insufficiently known species that probably belong to one
of conservation category. 74
 Cont…
• Since it is not possible to conserve all biological
diversity due to lack of resources, areas and
species are prioritized for conservation.
Areas and Species Priory Conserved
1. Hotspots area of biodiversity
 Hotspot are of biodiversity is a geographic area
that is particularly high in species richness, level
of endemism and threat.
 Example, many tropical countries (tropical rain
forest, tropical humid forest,etc)
75
 Cont…
ii) Threatened Habitats
 Threatened habitats are those habitats which are
affected by human induced or natural threats.
 The term threatened is used in the context of
conservation of the species which are in any one of
the three categories which are:
 Endangered species- are species which are in danger of
extinction and may not survive if the adverse factors
continue to operate.
 Vulnerable species- are species likely to move in to
endangered species.
 Rare species- are species with small number of population
76
iii) keystone Species
• These are a very important species that can
determine survival ability of large number of other
species in a community.
• Example, Giant mole rat determine the survival
capacity of Ethiopian wolf.
iv. Endemic species
 These are species found in a single geographical
area naturally.
• Example, Mountain Nyala, Ethiopian wolf,
Swayne’s Hartebeest, Walia Ibex, Chilada baboon,
etc. 77
• A keystone species is a species that has an
unusually large effect on its ecosystem.
– Because there are complex relationships within
an ecosystem, a single change (a few broken
strings in a web) in biotic or abiotic factors
could have a variety of effects.
What would happen if the keystone in the arc was missing?

keystone
• Here is an example of a Keystone species and how they
form and maintain a complex web of life.

creation of
wetland
ecosystem

increased waterfowl
Population

keystone species
increased
fish nesting sites
population for birds
 Quiz 1
1) Suppose that 60 different plant species are found in both
Harenna and Dinsho forest. The half of plant species found in
Harenna forest have no their own seedlings and saplings but
with higher endemism and rarity where as more than half of
tree species found in Dinsho forest have their own seedlings
and saplings but with lower endemism and rarity.
a) For which of the two forests the first conservation priority is
given? Why?
b) For which of the two forests the first conservation priority is
given if the two forests are with the same rarity and endemism?
Why?
2) What is Global warming? Write the negative consequences of
Global warming. 80
 Conservation approaches
 There are two broad approaches (strategies) of
conservation.
 These are: a) In-situ conservation and
b) Ex-situ conservation
a) In-situ conservation (on site conservation)
 It is an approach by which organisms are conserved
in their natural areas (place of origin).
 It is conservation of living organism on place of
origin (on site conservation).
 It is the best strategy for the long term protection of
biodiversity in the wild.
81
 Cont…
 Protected areas are a good examples of in-situ
conservation.
 Protected areas include:
National parks
National forest priority areas (NFPA)
Wildlife sanctuaries and nature reserves
Resource reserves
National biotic areas
Scientific reserves and strict nature reserves
 In-situ conservation is more effective to conserve a
large number of wild organisms in the area. 82
 Cont….
However, in-situ conservation is not a workable
option for many rare species, because a population
size of rare species is too small to persist in the
field.
b) Ex-situ conservation(off site conservation)
• It is an approach by which organisms are conserved
out of their natural areas or habitats.

83
 Cont…
• Ex-situ conservation includes:
 Botanical gardens
A botanical garden is a controlled and staffed
institution for the maintenance of a living collection
of plants under scientific management, together with
libraries, herbarium, laboratories, and museums.
In the world, there are 1500 large botanical gardens
Exaple, Royal (the world’s largest botanical garden)
of England at kew (established in 1795)
Entoto botanical garden of Ethiopia, in A.A

84
 Cont…

Figure 6.1:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London,

established in 1759 85
 Cont…
 field gene banks
 is large area where germplasm of different organisms
are planted.
 Examples, Coffee field gene bank in Jimma,
Medicinal plants gene bank in Wondogenet, etc.
 seed banks
 are a collection of seeds from the wild or from
cultivated plants in cold container.
 Example, Addis Ababa biodiversity institution,
Ethiopia.
 zoological gardens – a controlled living animals
garden. 86
 Merits and Demerits of Ex-situ Conservation
 Some arguments in favor of ex-situ conservation refer to the
following.
 It is most suitable for long term conservation.
 Its storage facilities can store greater diversity and quantity
of seeds.
 Its assessment is easier than in-situ conservation
 However, it is too costy to conserve large organisms
community ex-situ.
 Ex-situ conservation freezes evolution (leads to evolutionary
stasis)
 Adaptation of species and Genetic variability is also the
limitation of ex-situ conservation.
87
 Habitat Restoration
• Habitat restoration is the process of re-
establishing self sustaining habitats that closely
resemblances to a natural conditions in terms of:
species structure
species richness
species composition and
functions.
• It is the practice of renewing and rebuilding
degraded, damaged or destroyed ecosystems and
habitats in the environment by active human
intervention and action. 88
 Cont…
 The process of ecological restoration includes:
 erosion control
Reforestation
removal of non native invasive species
re introduction of native species and
habitat and range development for targeted
species.

89
 Restoration of degraded ecosystems

 Ecosystems can be damaged by natural

phenomena such as wild fire, volcanoes and
earthquake , but they typically recover their
original biomass, community structure and even a
similar species composition through the process
of ecological succession.
 Four main approaches are available in restoring
biological communities and ecosystems.
i) No action: preventing the ecosystem from any
human induced threats, will enhance species
recovery by its own. 90
 Cont…
ii) Restoration: rebuilding of the area to its original
species composition and structure by an active program
of reintroduction, in particular by planting and seeding
of the original plant species.
iii) Rehabilitation: is the process of restoring at least some
of the ecosystem functions and some of the original
species.
 For example, replacing a degraded forest with a tree
plantation.
iv) Replacement of a degraded ecosystem: is replacing the
ecosystem with another reproductive ecosystem type.
 For example, replacing a degraded forest area with a
productive plantation. 91
 Saline aquatic habitat reclamation
• Eutrophication one of the most common types of
damage to lake and ponds.
• It is caused by excess mineral nutrients produced by
human activities.
• Sewages from different sources are mostly disposed in to
the lakes and cause a rapid eutrophication.
• The sign of eutrophication includes:
Increased algal population (algal bloom)
Lower water clarity
Lower O2 content of water and
Fish die off
92
 Cont…
 Thus, it should reclaimed by:
 Reducing the mineralnutrients entering the
water bodies.
Diverting polluted water reversal of
eutrophication.
Adding zooplankton and fish population to
reduce algal bloom.

……………………………….//……………………

93
 UNIT SIX
CONSERVATION STATUS OF ETHIOPIA

Activity 6.1
Dear students! Before you begin the discussion below
try to address the following introductory questions.
1) Why does Ethiopia considered as the centre of
biodiversity?
2) What factors favour the country to have a larger fauna
and flora diversity?
3) What does mean by protected area?
4) Why protected?
5) List and discuss the national parks of Ethiopia with their
role.

94
 What is conservation?
6.1 Soil Conservation in Ethiopia
 Several soil problems exist in Ethiopia, of which
soil acidity and erosion are the major problem.
 As the recent information indicates, about 40.9% of
the country land is affected by soil acidity.
About 27.7% of the soil is moderate to weak
acidic soil
About 23.2% of the soil is strong acidic soil.

95
 Cont…
 Some of the well known areas severely affected by soil acidity in
Ethiopia are: Ghimbi, Hossana, Sodo, Chencha and Awi Zone.
 Crop yield in acidic soil reduced by 50% and can even reduced to
zero.
 Thus, the soil should be conserved by appropriate ways for better
yield.
 These ways include:
Aforestation
Planting acid favor plants
Agroforestry
T erracing, fallowing and mulching
Ading carbonates, hydroxides of Ca & Mg
(agricultural lime)
Adding wood ashes to acidic soil. 96
 6.2 Water Conservation in Ethiopia
A) Lakes in Ethiopia
 Lake is defined as a body of fresh or saline
water of considerable size that is surrounded by
land.
 Ethiopia is rich in water potential.
 There are more than 30 major lakes in the
country which are located in different
ecological zones.
 The major economically important lakes are
encountered in Rift valley and highland areas.
97
 Table 6.1: Some larger lakes of Ethiopia with the region where they are found.

Lake Length Area (km2) Depth Region

(Km) (m)
Abaya 60 1160 13 SNNPR
Abijata 17 205 14 Oromia
Haromaya - - dried Oromia
Hawassa 16 129 10 SNNPR
Chamo 26 551 10 SNNPR
Langano 18 230 46 Oromia
Shalla 28 409 230 Oromia
Tana 70 3600 9 Amhara
98
 Cont…
 Tana lake is the most popular high land lake of
Ethiopia.
 It is the largest lake of the country with the total
area of 3600 km2.
 Now a days, many of the country lakes are
threatened due to eutrophication, pollution, erosion,
settlement and less conservation policy.
 Ecample, - lake Haromaya is dried
- lake Abijata is seriously threatened.
 Thus, appropriate con/n method is mandatory to
protect the country lakes. 99
 Cont…

Figure 6.1: The distribution of lakes in Ethiopia 100

Threats of flamingos

Overgrazing
• Figure 22. Expansion of settlements and farmland inside the Park area
Figure 12. Focus group discussion with community members in ASLNP
• Figure 15. Breeding attempt of lesser flamingo at Lake Abijata
B) Rivers in Ethiopia
 River is a natural water course, usually fresh water and
flowing towards an ocean, lake or other river.
 There are about 12 major river basins in Ethiopia.
Table 6.2: Some major rivers of Ethiopia and their length within the country.
River Length within Ethiopia
Abay/Blue Nile 800km
Angereb 220km
Awash 1200km
Baro (Akobo) 227km
Dawa 740km
Genale 480km
Mereb 440km
Omo-Gibe 760km
Tacazze 608km
106
 Cont…
 Threats to Ethiopian rivers include:
Damming and diversion of rivers
Channeling and building water
distribution facilities
Introduction of exotic species to the river
Pollution and soil erosion.
6.3 Wildlife conservation
 Wild life conservation is the science of protection
and management of the wild living organisms in
their environment.
107
 Cont…

 It is the course of action of individuals, local,

regional, national and international organizations to
protect and preserve wild species of the world.
 Ethiopia possesses high wild life diversity with
many endemic species.
 The highest biodiversity and endemism of the country
are favored by:
Great variation in topography (from 116 m.b.s.l in the
area of Afar to 4620 m.a.s.l at Ras-dashen).
Climatic condition (Rainfall varies in distribution and
amount).
The latitudinal position of the country. 108
 Cont…
 The country endowed with divers ecosystems in w/c
diverse flora and fauna.
 It possesses:
861 bird species of which 16 species are endemic.
64 Amphibian species of which 23 are endemic.
201 Reptile species of which 14 are endemic.
6500- 7000 higher plant species of w/c 12% are
endemic.
 However, wild organisms are facing problem of
extinction or they are endangered.
 This is because; there was no strong legal issue to
tackle the problem previously. 109
 Cont…
 This means, people were hunting and killing mammals for their
use like meet, horn, teeth, skins and to derive a sort of income by
selling them.
 Now day, hunting is reduced due to improvement of
conservation rules and establishment of different protected areas.
 There are about 100 protected areas in Ethiopia.
 These include 58 National Forest Priority Areas (NFPAs) and 42
Wildlife Conservation Areas (WCAs).
 The Wild life Conservation Areas (WCAs) include:
 12 National parks (Note that, there are additionally,
established national parks currently)
 4 wild life sanctuaries
 8 wild life reserves and
 18 controlled hunting areas (Table 6.3). 110
Table 6.3 Some Ethiopian National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries and wild life reserves with their respected wildlife conserved.

Protected Stat Region Area Importance

area us Km2
Abijata- NP Oromia 887 Rift Valley Lakes, Acacia
Shalla woodland, avis fauna and
Ostrich and others.
Alatish NP Amhara 2,666 Woodland Savannah
Awash NP Oromia/ 250 Semi-Arid Vegetation, Oryx,
Afar Gazelle, lion.
Bale NP Oromia 2,200 Subafroalpine and Afroalpine
Mountains vegetation, dry evergreen and
moist montane forest,
Mountain Nyala, Ethiopian
wolf, Giant mole rat and
others.
Gambella NP Gambella 5,061 Swamps, Woodland and other
vegetation type. 111
 Cont…
Kafta NP Tigray 5,000 *
Shiraro
Mago NP SNNPR 2,162 Large ungulate assemblage (Ass,
camel, antelope, deer, Elephant)
NechSar NP SNNPR 514 Savannah wildlife, Swayne’s
Hartebeest and Zebra.
Omo NP SNNPR 4,068 Woodland, Large ungulate
assemblage, Elephants.
Simien NP Amhara 180 Subafroalpine and Afroalpine,
Mountains Walia Ibex, Ethiopia wolf

Yangudi- NP Afar 4,731 Grassland: Lion, Ostrich

Rasa
Babile WLS Oromia/ 6,982 Semi-Arid Elephants
Somali 112
 Cont…
Kuni Muktar WLS Oromia * Mountain Nyala
Senkele WLS SNNPR 54 Swayne’s Hartebeest
Yabello WLS Oromia/ 2,496 Scrub and Bush Crow
SNNPR

Alledeghi WLR Afar 1,832 Different wild life (DWL)

Awash west WLR Afar 1,781 DWL
Bale WLR Oromiya 1,766 DWL
Chew Bahir WLR Tigray 4,212 DWL
Gewane WLR Afar 2,439 DWL
Mille Serdo WLR Afar 8,766 DWL
Shire WLR Tigray 753 DWL
Tama WLR Tigray 3,269 DWL 113
 6.4 Forest conservation

 Forest conservation is preserving of forest

resources to assure their highest benefit.
 Currently, it is the top agenda for a number of
world conservation organizations.
 Because, the earlier forest patches in different
countries are seriously affected by different human
induced factors such as deforestation and forest
degradation.
 Ethiopia is one of the countries where forest
deforestation and degradation have been observed.

114
 Cont…
 In early 20th century about 42 million hectares (35%
land area of the country) was covered with forest
(EFAP, 1994).
 However, this figure was declined to 2.7% by 1989, due
to various human induced pressures.
 Currently, efforts have been made to identify the
remaining high forest areas and designed as National
Forest Priority Areas (NFPA).
 There are 58 National Forest Priority Areas (NFPA) in
the country.
 They have a major role to reduce deforestation, soil
erosion, species extinction, to hinder global warming, to
maintain ecological complexity and evolution. 115
 UNIT SEVEN
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENTS AND OTHER
INSTITUTION TO CONSERVATION
Introduction
 Natural resources are legally protected at local,
national as well as international levels.
 In many countries there are private conservation
organizations, which acquire land for conservation.
 National governments and national organizations
play a leading role in conservation.
 There are also international conventions and
agreements for the protection of species at multiple
levels of government. 116
 Cont…
 International cooperation for conservation is an
absolute requirement for several crucial reasons like
the following.
Species often migrate across international borders.
International trade in biological products can result
overexploitation of species.
The benefits from biodiversity are important for
international and national organizations.
Many of the problems that threaten species and
ecosystems are international in scope and require
international cooperation to solve.
117
 8.1 International Conventions

 The most important international conventions protecting

species and habitat at international level are:
A.Convention on International Trade in endangered sp.
B. Convention on Biological Diversity
C. Convention of Migratory Species of Wild Animal
D.International Convention on Plant Genetic Resources
for Food and Agriculture.
E. Convention on Wetlands
F. World Heritage Convention

118
 Cont…
 Each of these biodiversity related conventions
works to implement actions at the regional,
national and international level in order to reach
shared goals of conservation and sustainable use.
 In meeting the objectives of these conventions
have developed a number of complementary
approaches such as site, species, genetic
resources, ecosystems and operational tools such
as work plan, trade permits and certificates,
regional agreements, site listings, benefit sharing
and funds.
119
 A. Convention on International Trade in endangered species (CITES)

 It established in 1973 in Geneva, Switzerland.

 It is currently endorsed by more than 120 countries.
 It establishes the lists of species whose international
trade is to be controlled.
 It aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of
wild animals and plants do not threaten their survival.
 Species list not for trade are Orchids, Cycads,
Carnivores plants, tree ferns and timber species.
 The Convention compose varying degrees of protection
to more than 30,000 plant and animal species.
120
B. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
 It is known as the Biodiversity Convention informally.
 It is an international legally binding treaty.
 It adopted in 1992, in Rio de Janeiro.
 At present the CBD has 190 parties.
 The main objective of CBD is developing national strategies
for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
 The three main goals of CBD are:
 Conservation of biodiversity.
 Sustainable use of biodiversity.
 The fair and equitable sharing of its benefits.
 The CBD thematic programs include agriculture, coasts and
oceans, drylands, forests, islands, mountains, protected areas
and its cross cutting issues are climate change, ecosystem
approach and invasive alien species.
121
 The 2010 Convention of Biodiversity

 The United Nations declared 2010 to be International Year

of biodiversity.
 The 2010 biodiversity target is to achieve, by 2010, a
significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss
at the global, regional and national level.
 It creates an opportunity for the biodiversity communities
to encourage people to discover the biodiversity that
surrounds them.
 The 2010 convention of biodiversity major goals are to:
 Raise awareness of how biodiversity is important for our
lives
 Promote new ways to safeguard biodiversity and
 Encourage people to take immediate steps to reduce the
122
 National Committees of Convention of
Biodiversity
• National Governments are primary organizers for
the International Year of Biodiversity.
• The National Committees constitute of a variety
of stakeholder including ministers,
municipalities, indigenous Communities, non
government organizations (NGOs), scientific
groups, youth groups, business and key economic
sectors.

123
 C. Convention of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)

 IT is signed in 1979
 It primarily focus on bird species.
 It aims to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian
migratory species throughout their range.
 Parties to the CMS work together to conserve
migratory species and their habitats by providing
strict protection for the most endangered
migratory species, by concluding regional
multilateral agreements for the conservation and
management of specific species. 124
D. The International Convention on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

 It established in 2004.
 The objectives of the Treaty are:
the conservation and sustainable use of plant
genetic resources for food and agriculture.
The fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising
out of their use.
 The Treaty covers all plant genetic resources useful
for food and agriculture.
 The Treaty also includes provisions on Farmers'
Rights.
125
 E. Convention on Wetlands

 It is popularly known as the Ramsar Convention.

 It established in 1971.
 Ramsar Convention provides the framework for
national action and international cooperation for
the conservation and wise use of wetlands and
their resources.
 The convention covers all aspects of wetland
conservation and wise use, recognizing wetlands
as ecosystems that are extremely important for
biodiversity conservation in general and for the
well-being of human communities. 126
 F. World Heritage Convention (WHC)
 It is established in 1972.
 The primary mission of the WHC is to identify
and conserve the world's cultural and natural
heritage, by drawing up a list of sites whose
outstanding values should be preserved for all
humanity.
 It also ensure the protection of world natural
heritages through a closer co-operation among
nations.

127
 8.2 National laws and policies
 At present, few countries have adopted comprehensive
policies on biodiversity.
 Although many countries have strong laws related to
conservation within protected areas, these laws often are
not enforced.
 The lack of appropriate land tenure and land use and high
level of poverty pose a major barriers to improve
sustainability of resource use and species conservation.
 The ways of new policy implementation is also a key
factor in the success of policy reform programs.
 Thus, the successes failures and lessons learned from
recent policy reform on biodiversity conservation are
important research topics for conservation biologists.
128
 Work together to achieve happy healthy
farmers and ecosystems

Smallholders access market prices from

rural info kiosks, c/o Pride africa, IDRC
 .

IF WE TAKE CARE OF THE EARTH,

SHE WILL TAKE CARE OF US!

130